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Oceans
Themes
1
...

b
...


200m above current levels 100mya- change structure of continent and marine environment
Substantial sea level changes across last 7000 years
...

i
...
many reefs will be refugia but some new can it preserve tropical biodiversity?

...
isolated cells have closely related species : refuge preserve older biodiversity

2
...

Ecological diversification will determine effects of climate change

...
Adaptation to environment provide protection
against climate change eg acidification
...
Naturally exposed to high level were tolerant: individual populations will adapt
given time but not sure if will have time
...

Habitat changes due to temperature

...

i
...
Earth System modelling


...
There was increase of 11°C in
the Tethys region (consistent with fossil conodont evidence), but at the poles the increase was greater (15°C)
as ocean currents stagnated
...
Quantifying marine biodiversity


...
reliant on museum collections
i
...
species tend to be undersampled: Mora 2011 estimated 1321 species of prokaryote and 2
...
But issues with estimates Consider Chromista
...
(2011), but
Costello and Chaudhary (2017) estimate 75,000
a
...
g
...

Next generation sequencing

...
Sequencing of bulk DNA or organisms, for community structure across
habitats, space, time
i
...
Limitations: how relate to biomass /health/sex species
...

2
...
Use non invasive eDNA for
tailored surveying
...
Stat 2017: Directly sequencing eDNA from seawater using a shotgun
approach resulted in only 0
...
3 million reads assigning to
eukaryotes, highlighting the inefficiency of this method for assessing
eukaryotic diversity
...
Our data also show that the best
performing ‘universal’ PCR assay recovered only 44% of the eukaryotes

4
...
shotgun sequencing

1
...


identified across all assays, highlighting the need for multiple
metabarcoding assays to catalogue biodiversity
...
The
integration of eDNA analyses with existing biotic and abiotic surveys
delivers a powerful new long-term approach to monitoring the health of
our world’s oceans

sequence parts of whole genome
look at frequency of genes giving clue to types of biological processes
present
3
...
GOS and TARA Oceans
5
...
81
...

Stat 2017:environmental shotgun sequencing (ESS), which randomly sequences fragmented DNA
directly from an environmental sample
...
metagenomic sequencing

...
16S metabarcoding
1
...
>3um mainly bacteria sorted into OTUs increase of richness with depth but
decline of overall number

...
epipelagic and mesopelagic gene differences
v
...
eukaryotic
2
...

3
...
Sequencing of bulk RNA of organisms, for characterisation of genes
expressed in the environment
vi
...
Soft benthos

...
communities structured by location
and depth, see differences between epifauna and infauna
...
Hard benthos

...
Communities
differ between size more than site
vii
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Teleosts: Stoeckle 2017: 2 rivers in NYC collected JUne to JUly
...
Match
results from previous study
...
Collect water, filter, extract DNA
...

3
...

Took 2785 BRUV samples compared to 22 eDNA: eDNA found 3x more
species in wilderness than impacted areas

...

Found elusive species that dont attend BRUV
b
...
Stat 2017: PCR amplification of target genes (and taxa) on bulk DNA
extracts from the environment can be combined with next-generation
sequencing (NGS) to provide high-throughput information on the species

present, a technique commonly referred to as DNA metabarcoding
...
Better for eukaryotes
...
eDNA marine population genetics
1
...
More whale sightings matched
more tuna eDNA in water
...
sharks are following the tuna aggregations, to
feed on fish spawn
2
...
Mapping marine biodiversity


...
realms differ with abiotic factors so good for conservation purposes
i
...

coral triangle

...

Model likelihood of speciation using reef history
c
...
reconstruct age of populations within species from genetic data
...

i
...
Essentially this acts a model demonstrating the
importance of past environments and climates in explaining present day diversity
d
...
Such data are
readily sourced
...
g
...

DNA sequence-based phylogenetics can inform us about the evolutionary history of species, including
their divergence time from other species, and divergence of populations within species

6
...

icefish adaptive radiation into 57 species after adapted ability to produce glycoprotein antifreeze
a
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high: floating eggs pelagic
i
...
Momigliano 2017: Flounder speciation, baltic sea has salinity gradient, high
salinity do usual thing, low salinity eggs dont float so spawn in demersal
...
Structure associated with
life histories and incipient species divulged in last 8500 years
b
...
Guo 2015: baltic sea, 3 spined stickleback, Some SNPs close to genes that invoked in other cases of marinefreshwater divergence
...

Adaptation along salinity and temperature gradients

...
strong genetic differences between baltic and west:
habitat barrier to dispersal
...

Adaptation on depth gradient

...
Shum 2014: pelagic beaked redfish, late maturation
...
supported by rhodopsin gene:
divergent visual adaptation to different conditions
...
Gaither 2018: Roundnose grenadier: 60 genomes sequenced, limited divergence between fish caught in
shallows and deep
...
6 outliers, found
variance in 6 genes, evidence of gradual fixation of alleles with increasing depth eg ATG9 switch from TT to
fixation at CC
...
Outlier loci: juveniles at 1000m = had mix of shallow and deep genes, deep
fish only deep alleles: adaptation to depth
e
...
Simmonds 2018: Porites coral eating snailfish: coral green or gold
...
radula: all mtDNA lineages use both
groups
...
violacea: biased into different host preferences
...

Could local adaptation contribute to allopatric speciation

...
olivaceous: widespread, A
...
distinct in mtDNA: different
species
...
Why A
...
Gaither 2015: RADseq data using 3700 SNPs
...
Selection maintains
separate species and not dispersal alone
...

i
...
Seems to be pattern of geographically
proximate populations being recently diverged, but some old
...
mitogenomes support distinction of ecotypes into distinct clades and
supported by SNP data
ii
...

Phylogenetic methods for comparing rates of speciation among clades of marine organisms
(diversification rates per clade)
h
...

Genomic variants can tell about the genes under selection (whole genome sequencing most
appropriate)
j
...
Satellites and Acoustics


...


...
Target groups by sending
signals from echosounder and transponder tuned to 38kHz, while those interested in krill may survey at 102kH
i
...
Biomass estimation: Irigoien 2014: long distance echogram from 38KHz
transponder on global cruise and compared data to satellite images of
primary production estimated 11-15000 million tonnes
...
Behaviour: DVM during polar night: fixed site active acoustic monitoring
...

ii
...

passive acoustic monitoring: pinger tags etc
...
Erisman and Rowell 2017: Gulf corvina: goes to estuaries to breed from gulf of mexico, recorded sound along
transect river, compared with echosounders fish density estimate
...
5 mil spawning
...
davies 2017: North atlantic right whale distribution: spend summer in north, winter in south and used to be
found on both atlantic sides but now only west
...
PAMs from 19 organisations from 2004-2014, had year round use of
scotian shelf and saw south migration
...
maybe climate change
affected
...
Williams 2018: 4 years of acoustic telemetry data on grey reef shark movements
1
...
Extrapolating from tagged sharks to population: deposition of 94
...
Passive acoustics for identifying the presence of organisms, (e
...
fish and whales), their final scale habitat
preferences (e
...
cod) or assessing the health of the environment (e
...
coral reefs)
b
...
Gordan 2018: reef noise important for larval animals returning in dispersal phase
...


1
...

Acoustic tags

...
transmit to fixed or mobile receiver
ii
...
Meyer 2017: yellowstripe goatfish: PAM tracking on coconut island, located
15 mins for 48 hours
...
Fixed PAM stations confirm stareye parrotfish commute between these
locations
iii
...
Frietas 2015: Atlantic cod, norway: 40 individuals depth and temp recorded
every 110 seconds
...

2
...
Temperature dependent habitat use has impacts
iv
...
Satellite positioning tags

...

record multiple variables like depth, temp, salinity
b
...
pop up archival tags

...

upload to ARGOS SATELLITES
b
...
GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS)

...

good if in enclosed bay or fjord
v
...
Doherty 2017: where basking sharks spend winter? Used pop up archival
tag but not much movement information so used light geolocation PAT
tags
...
Spend winter at 200m and go deeper as move
south
...
DTAGs: conduct behavioural response studies on animals spending life at
1000m, has 2 hydrophones to record vocalisations and sounds animal
exposed to so known how loud it was when reached animal
...
Satellite tags, for studying space use, environmental preferences and
behaviour
vi
...


8
...

Collecting data on environment

...
CTD: cycle over 10 days, sink to pre programmed depth, drift and rise to
surface then uploads to satellite
...
Automated underwater vehicles
1
...

images greyscale of floor with shadows behind tall objects
2
...

illuminate seabed, broad scale mapping where depth information is key
a
...
Multibeam and side-scan sonar for mapping habitats and informing in-situ
surveys
ii
...


2
...


Monitoring the oceans is needed to determine changes in ocean heat
storage, and measure vertical fluxes of heat, moisture and CO2 between
atmosphere and ocean: needed to understand global ecosystem and
climate change
Use of electromagnetic radiation to acquire information about the ocean,
land and atmosphere without being in physical contact
...

sea surface temperature
i
...
Obtained by satellite microwave radiometers and near infrared radiometers
iii
...
GCOS: SST is essential climate variable
iv
...

ocean colour

...
USe data from MODIS
i
...

ocean vector winds

...
active or passive system
c
...
Sentinel 5: measure sea surface topography, sea and land surface
temperature and colour for environmental monitoring
...
ICESat-2: launched 2018 in polar orbit to measure ice sheet mass
balance/thickness and vegetation canopy
...
Orbits

...

a
...
reduces costs because dont need to be tracked by ground stations
i
...
EM spectrum wavelength to use for viewing the ocean

...

Radiowaves for low ones in sun-synchronous orbit because reflect back

...
Infrared waves: heat radiation emitted from surface but need no cloud
1
...
can be obscured by clouds
ii
...

Passive system: VIRS

...
ice cover, temperature, salinity, atmospheric water vapour, sea roughness
c
...
scatterometers: receive backscatter from small area
i
...
Sea ice found to be reducing: same as found in autonomous vehicles
a
...
AUVs in Geoscience
1
...

has multibeam sonar, sidescan sonar, colour camera, CTD sensor
a
...

Surveying inaccessible habitats using multi level studies

...
use AUVs for fine scale mapping for features of interest
ii
...

Wynn 2014


...
AUVs for ecological surveys
1
...

Cameras on Autosub6000: survey seafloor in front of and below AUV
a
...

Quantified diversity of organisms on sea floor including cephalopods, brittlestars, fish
...

better accuracy of recording and density than trawling
ii
...
mobile devices that identify and follow

...
OceanServer IverII AUV with hydrophone ring
1
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searchers had 5 mins to find tag
3
...
Tagged leopard shark and mapped using both systems results similar
iii
...

Static Remote Devices

...
Jamieson 2011

...
little life visible
a
...

see species changing in presence across depths

...
evidence of niche partitioning of benthic species: adaptation to depth zones
2
...

Jellyfish potential to contribute to deep sea ecosystems functioning
...

Landers 1250m off Norway baited with mackarel/lions mane jelly/helmet jellyfish
b
...
Measuring abundance of species in deep oceans
1
...

Landers in mariana trench, Kermadec, New Herbrides

...
measure abundance by counting after 10 hours/use arrival time as indicator
ii
...

Landers estimating abundance using arrival time

...
found mix of teleost and elasmobranchs: deep sea specialists
ii
...
Autonomous recorders (e
...
BRUVs) for assessing diversity and abundance
c
...
flash characterised by burst of light that fades, intensity and rate different per species
i
...
Cronin 2016
1
...
Atmospheric light because unimportant after 30m so before 30m consider
alternative light sources in analysis

...
Measured in number of emissions and total
photons
a
...

b
...

Autonomous flying vehicles

...
Possible to separate shallow coral from substrate and quantify bleaching?

...

b
...


sUAS collect info on bleaching extent
...
can use satellites to monitor and predict croal reef health
i
...

Autonomous time lapse camera

...
Rayment 2018
2
...

Lot of sea mist/rain hard to confirm
a
...

visual method might be best but depends on conditions
f
...
crown of thorns starfish eats coral across indio-pacific, can form plagues and decimate reefs
...
AUV could have capacity to recognise and inject them with sodium bisulphate and vinegar
...
CotsBOT/RangerBOT
g
...
Two basic categories of
technology used to monitor our seas: (1) the platform from which a measurement is taken, such as a research
vessel, a static observatory, or an unmanned automated vehicle; and (2) the actual sensor or methodology
used to take the measurement, such as a multibeam sonar array, a sea bed camera or a chemical analysis of a
physical sample
...
Research vessel
1
...
But
expensive
i
...
wave height, water quality, imaging fauna, biodiversity: CTD, sample
collection, hydrophone, passive sampler: expense and limited locations
ii
...
fisheries research, geoscience, tracking animals, ecological surveys, sea
based mapping: acoustics, CTD, water sample collection: limited areas
iii
...
commercial shoreline surveys, bleached reefs, shallow habitat monitoring
not environmental monitoring: camera, GPS
iv
...
marine litter, biodiversity recording: eDNA sample collection, litter
collection: expertise, data quality, reliability
v
...
active for biomass and biodiversity, passive for presence of organisms,
their habitat preferences and ecosystem health (corals)
...
Acoustic tags for tracking, space usage
vi
...
water quality, algal blooms, behaviour, coral health: data imaging: only sea
surface measurements
2
...
CTD sensors
1
...
Acoustics
1
...
Cameras
x
...
visual taxonomy
xii
...
Molecular biology techniques
xiv
...
Hydrophone

9
...


Biodiversity, fish stock assessment: RV, citizen science, satellite, AUV:
images need analysis

1
...


biodiversity, fish stock assessment, non indigenous species: RV, citizen
science: cost

1
...


Biodiversity: RV, citizen science, mobile/static platform

1
...


underwater noise: static platform, animal tag, RV


...
produced by warming and fertiliser run off: problem because crown of thorns starfish
i
...
Tester and Steidinger 1997: monitoring Karenia Brevis (dinoflagellate) cause of HABs in gulf
1
...

Type 1: monitoring existing bloom
a
...

Type 3: forecast transport of bloom
c
...
Coastal Colour zone scanner: 1978-1986

...

1990: SeaWiFs began getting images routinely for monitoring HAB

...
6 visible bands for ocean colour measuring
ii
...

Image processed with atmospheric correction algorithm that includes correction for water leaving
radiance caused by sediment in NIR bands
c
...
Florida alerted to potential bloom formation in 2004 and type 3 in 2001
...

Ocean colour and climate change

...
European space agency initiative: addresses how strong climate change signal is in ocean colour and factors
affecting it
1
...
model predicts chlorophyll concentration as indicator and compared to
previous models for accuracy

...
Found: ocean colour will change
...

b
...
Mumby 2004: remote sensing of coral reefs and their physical environment

1
...


SST bleaching hotspot anomalies and degree heating week products as
indices of coral bleaching thermal related stress
2
...
Results from interaction between elevated SST and UVB
...
Much scope to
improve the forecasting of mass bleaching by integrating the products of
satellite sensors
So remote sensing isnt just for monitoring but it can predict potential changes for number of areas

10
...

Abiotic parameters of oceans:

...
Epipelagic zone temp varies with latitude: permanent thermocline between
200-1000m
i
...
Varies with latitude and depth

...
Oxygen
1
...
Abiotic factors affect communities as a function of depth
a
...
but predictable annual periodicity occurs here in changes in vertical flux of organic matter: associated
chemistry and ecology drives seasonal variability
1
...

Behavioural ecology of bioluminescence

...
metagenomics allowed investigate microbial life
2
...
Prokaryote and viral abundance
1
...
viral
infections cause death to autotrophic and heterotrophic plankton too but
impact on deep ocean and benthic community unknown

...

Virus number increases with depth even when correct for sediments at different depths
2
...
63
gigatonnes of carbon a year: essential process of organic carbon
production in deep sea
3
...
Now understand how important viruses are
c
...
80% animals do it, with different chemical structures of luciferin but all react with O2 for light
i
...
also acts as
1
...
warning colouration: jellies, brittle stars
ii
...

Extremophiles

...

i
...


ii
...
to maintain correct fluidity of membranes level of saturation of lipids is
controlled with lower temperature meaning more unsaturated
components and increase saturation in tails
2
...

ratio of unsaturated fatty acids decreases with depth
a
...

b
...
So when look at
relationships between properties and animals across phylogenetic tree need to check how related they are
and the evolutionary history
c
...
Rhodopsin: as deeper find specific amino acid sites selected for to decrease
how much compress
4
...
Hydrothermal vents
1
...
Organisms are chemoautotrophic: use energy from chemical reactions to
make sugars but can make in different ways

...
Green sulphur bacteria: anaerobes that need light for growth by oxidation
of sulphur compound to reduce CO2 to organic carbon, and are capable of
photosynthetic growth at low light levels as exist at 1000m
4
...

Mid atlantic ridge vents
a
...

Not same composition in communities
...
Pacific: bulk of chemoautotrophic microbes are sulphur oxidising
...
Atlantic: free swimming or epibiotic microbes
c
...
O2/iron/sulphur levels correlate with distribution of specific taxa in microhabitats
i
...
Even though can be sulphur driven in methane
producing microbes, actual chemical structure
around them is what caused different species to
evolve
...

Driver of speciation

...
Have high levels of elemental materials in deep sea but where other places in world where plates
spreading release different chemicals but might not get superheated water
1
...
As get closer to
higher CO2 concentrations, get biodiversity loss
because of pH drop as the water absorbs the
CO2 so ⅓ of species crashed
...
Expect the same drop in species over next 100
years due to ocean acidification
3
...

Vertical Migration

...

i
...

1
...
Non migratory occupied distinct and separate strata in water column
ii
...
At 38KhZ show clear DMV and that
different species undergo different amounts of migration
...
What drives migration?
1
...

eclipses and moon phases support to this
a
...
circadian rhythm: identify clock genes and periodicities in gene expression
2
...
UV as early driver of migration

...
Predator evasion

...

a
...
Better off
hungry than dead: Kremer, 1988
b
...
Many species only fed at night: actively avoided competition and predation
5
...

Niche partitioning and food sources

...
tricuspidata is a herbivore and T
...
Not just separating non migrators and migrators
but those that migrate occupy different niches with different food sources
...
So maybe species coexist during day without competition
a
...
copepods do the same but segregations occur in food type but also to food size (because of body size)
i
...

So DMV has evolved out of need to reduce competition for resources: different diets, sizes so
different food size, migrate to different depths
iv
...
migration focused on biotic factors: food and predation
2
...
Controlling buoyancy
1
...

But pressure…
...

Have rete mirabilia for gas exchange: clear adaptation to deep sea migratory fish as larger in
mesopelagic fish
2
...

most of migratory micro nekton are crustaceans and negatively buoyant because made of low lipid
and high protein
...
Musculature

...

Non migratory and stay at depth adapted to lower food supply by reducing muscular tissues but
building up lipid reserves

...
Effects of changing ocean climate on DVM
1
...

reduces light penetration and influences stratification
a
...

Increased zooplankton and fisheries production
c
...

The effects of ocean acidification

...
Migrators are suited to varying environmental conditions due to permanent thermocline
...
But this change in exposure is short not long term
iii
...
Affect calcareous
organisms due to pCO2

11
...

Hypothesis
a
...

Unbiased:

...
random allocation to groups like tossing a coin
ii
...
researchers blinded until final stats analysis
c
...
right sample size
i
...
sample size determined by a formal method like power analysis
d
...
Observe Frequency distribution of durations of interactions between groups (positive: when 2 animals within
10m of each other)
i
...

Recording methods like BRUV
f
...

Lab experiment: controlled to isolate the effect being tested
...
Do reef fish use the polarisation of light as a visual clue?
1
...
2 sites used on Horseshoe reef
...

2
...
Increase feeding rate, time spent away from refuge, activity level
...
BUT: no measurements on the reef to show the change in polarisation is
caused by amount of available food

...

Had video cameras to record feeding behaviour of a planktivorous reef fish at same time as
measuring polarisation
b
...

c
...

Conclude change in polarisation used as visual feeding clue

...
less clear: more plankton and polarisation lower
5
...

Tank setup with tank around edge which milk is added to, to scatter light like plankton
a
...

Keep brightness the same: cant do in field
c
...

20 copepods and changed polarisation

...
fish 15% higher feeding rate when polarisation lower
e
...
10% increase away from coral when polarisation is lower
f
...
6% more time moving after change to unpolarised light environment
1
...

Change in visual cue changes their behaviour: more active, predatory and away from coral

...
But! No measure on the reef to show that the change in polarisation is
caused by a change in the abundance of available food

12
...

Importance of sound

...

Beaked Whale

...
Solitary
ii
...

Atypical mass stranding events

...
Bahamas, 2000: 14 beaked whales of 3 species
1
...

2
...
Many stranded had high nitrogen
c
...
Used to track ships and navigate, uses 3kHz of energy but has sudden onset time
...
Audiograms
1
...
Sensitive at 10kHz and sonar used is 3kHz so
not in peak sensitivity range but can hear it
ii
...
How sound can affect the animal: closer can expect physical injury
2
...
Masking: masks own calls, reduces communication distance
4
...
Hearing Loss
d
...
controlled exposure experiments using simulated sonar played at lower level
i
...
DTAGs
1
...

Case Study 1: Bahamas 2007: Behavioural response study
...
Whales live here all year and exposed to sonar but no stranding events, but few hundred km away never
experience sonar and get strandings
i
...

ii
...

1
...

tagged one beaked whale, simulated sonar
a
...
See if sound similar to predator killer whale: if true expect whales to
respond similarly to sonar and killer whale calls so playback calls

...
See if startle reflex because of sudden onset time caused them to leave the
area
...

Took 3 days for animal to return to area
f
...
DeRutier 2013: took measurements from beaked whales including fluke intervals using DTAGs in response to
simulated and real sonar
i
...
Fluke stroke increased as did acceleration
...
Stop then flee
ii
...
Further away but receive levels comparable to sonar playback: no response
iii
...
Stop fluking, then flee rapidly, then long period of non forager dives for
long time
iv
...
animal swam rapidly and silently away, extending dive duration and non
foraging interval
2
...

Might be proximity: detect how far away the sound is and if far away poses no risk
3
...
Responses to operational sonars could elevate stranding risk and reduce
feeding
g
...
Goldbogen 2013: off coast of california, exposed to sonar in this area
i
...
Dive profile: forage on krill on surface and dive to 200m
iii
...
no response

...

Lower maximum receive levels: receive level is lower at the surface than at 1000m
iv
...
disrupted foraging
2
...
Stopped foraging for 62 minutes losing over 1 metric tonne of krill

...
Conclusions of case studies 2 and 3
1
...
Responses included:

...
can have high impact as seen in blue whale because displacement from high quality prey patches have
significant impact on fitness and population health
a
...

acceleration away from area
h
...
Behavioural responses of whales and dolphins to simulated military sonar
i
...
Cessation in foraging and disrupted dive patterns
iii
...
Response influenced by food motivation (3), context of exposure (2) and animals previous exposure history (1,
3)
i
...
Navy cannot conduct exercises around blue whale habitat because protected
i
...
Need more innovations because DTAG allowed whale behaviour to be quantified and can attach to many
mammals now also
j
...
One way this could happen is

through a process called rectified diffusion
...
It is unlikely that this process caused the tissue damage observed in the
Bahamas stranding because the levels of sound exposure required to produce rectified diffusion
experimentally are greater than were possible from the sonars by several orders of magnitude
...

Bernaldo de quiros 2019: the effects of MFAS on BWs vary among individuals or populations, and
predisposing factors may contribute to individual outcomes
...
Coral Reef Health


...

a
...

Polyps connect to single living surface above skeleton a colony can live for centuries but individual
only 6 years
c
...
Tropical coral host photosynthesising symbiotic algae: algae provides
coral with O2 and 90% energy, removes waste in return for refuge
d
...
colours disappear, outer tissue pale, loss algae and coral starts to die, filamentous algae take over
i
...
Occurs by:
1
...
As endosymbionts
photosynthesise they provide coral with chlorophyll
...
Stressed coral expels them either get rid and tissue is healthy and can be
recolonised by high temperature algae or dies
iii
...
so get bleached and unbleached corals side by side: bleaching thresholds
are visualised as a broad spectrum of responses
2
...
Have a threshold of stress and above it get bleaching across all species but
different threshold for different species

...
but prior exposure to temperature may cause adaptation so thresholds can change
i
...
Get bleaching due to prolonged exposure to high temperatures
iv
...
data from remote sensing: prediction: because of temperature and number
of of days it has been raised get different predictions
2
...
ReefBase
1
...

2016 Lizard Island bleaching event, 100% coral loss

...

3 major bleaching events in 20 years: 2016 most serious affecting pacific, great barrier reef and
northern limit of where reefs exist
...
only northern third affected, southern third had no stress
i
...

Case study 1: global warming transforms coral reef appendages

...
measured heat exposure from satellite
ii
...
2016 majority of reef at alert level 2: highest alert level
noticeable across half of reef
1
...
Compared initial mortality and stress measure and how good of an indicator this is for survival rates
1
...


Initial loss within bleaching event good predictor for what will happen in 6
months time and how much will be lost overall
h
...
VanOppen, 2015
i
...
corals living at higher temperatures are better adapted: looking at molecular and genetic reasons for why can
withstand high temperatures
1
...

better thermal tolerance associated with heritable differences in expression of oxidative, extracellular
and transport functions
a
...
Evident some environmentally induced nongentic changes are heritable

...
Heritable traits in epigenetics: increased methylation but in terms of the
way corals respond some show epigenetic changes more than others and
so adapt more
i
...
morikawa and palumbi 2019: super corals: Nursery stock from heat tolerant parents had 3x less bleaching than
others and retained genetic diversity after 2015 bleaching event in American Samoa
...
Marine Pollutants


...
Focus on and explore the key sources
of:

...
Resist environmental degradation, entirely man made and are used as
pesticides, pharmaceuticals and solvents

...
Causes egg shell thinning
...

a
...
Link between
PCB usage and concentration in killer whale blubber

...
affects reproductive success and immune
function of killer whale
2
...
Killer whales particularly affected: calf survival
and immune response compromised at higher
concentration due to disruption to endocrine
system
i
...
most populations likely to decline
...
Low risk populations are geographically isolated
from point sources and fish eating
ii
...
not just found in coast also deep sea: sediments
as high in deep sea as in coast of mediterranean
2
...
Individual behaviour determines loading of POPs: informed using satellite
tracking to see habitat usage of elephant seal off north coast of USA
...

most exposed to POPs are those that spend more time closer to coast
a
...
show distinct life histories and movement is associated with exposure to POPs
i
...
Many POPs with harmful effects and bioaccumulate and concentrated in
top predators
i
...
marine plastic pollution

...
enter environment and form biofilms
2
...

80% from rivers, where is mismanaged plastic from? I
...
Jambeck 2015: china and southeast asia as major potential polluters
i
...
population density
2
...
flow direction
4
...
estimated amount material entering oceans at
each estuary
a
...

lot from freshwater systems and can model plastic waste input of each river globally
a
...
when considered, clear predicted plastic input of rivers in model matches actual input
i
...
Garbage patches

...

Many fates but degradation of plastics not always rapid
4
...

Wilcox 2015: metanalysis of data on seabird plastic ingestion

...
Model risk to seabird species globally
1
...

Plastics in the deep sea

...
Microplastic fibres recovered from rare samples collected from deep sea
...
Found in sea cucumbers, seapen polyps etc
5
...

marine organisms mistake plastic for food
a
...
Chapron 2018: coral fragments exposed to micro/macroplastics
1
...
microplastics affect prey capture rate and
activity level
i
...
coral diversity high but so is plastic pollution
...
tested association between plastic and coral
disease: disease associated with plastic

3
...
morphology of coral mattered in determining
the likelihood of disease when plastic attached
...

plastics colonised by pathogenic organisms so if plastic damages tissue, provides entry point
ii
...
Plastics absorb pollutants and transfer toxins

...

Plastics can absorb pollutants (POPs like PBDEs, PCBs and hydrocarbons) which are desorbed in
warmer and more acidic environment of marine organism guts

...

Toxin transfer in seabirds

...
Most organisms contained plastic containing PBDEs of multiple types
1
...

some contained those not found in their fish prey
a
...
bioaccumulation
ii
...
know about source and fate of plastics and action is taken by affecting
policy
2
...
Survey experts asked to categorise plastic objects by harm they cause

...

plastic bags: issues with ingestion
b
...

good when determining plans of action
iii
...
Plastics dont
degrade so can remain there for ages but because of hydrodynamics and light exposure they fragment to be
taken up by smaller organisms
...
Microplastics and nanoplastics are of particular concern: ingested by even the smallest zooplankton species
they can transfer hydrophobic pollutants (and plastic additives) into the trophic webs, although
thermodynamic models and experimental data provide conflicting results and more research is needed in this
field

1
...


Bieras 2018: Ingestion and contact with polyethylene
microplastics (PE-MP) does not cause acute toxicity on marine zooplankton
although when spiked with BP-3 saw some reduced hatching in fish after
12 days exposure
...
Microparticles do occur in the environment, but based on
our analysis, there is currently limited evidence to suggest that they are
causing significant adverse impacts or that they are increasing the uptake
of hydrophobic organic compounds into organisms
...
Need more studies that reflect
the real environment

15
...

Impact on global oceans in 2008 (Halpern 2015)

...
Collectively, climactic drivers were identified as most important stress contributing to cumulative impact on
global scale
a
...
Used 2013 stressor data, and scale of stress was more widespread globally from shelf
i
...
impact increasing even if humans declining in area
b
...
inter/subtidal terrain along with water, flora, fauna that cover it and historical and cultural attributes that it
contains, set aside by low or any other effective mean in order to protect part of the entire environment
i
...
Try and do this for non climate stressors over which have greatest control

...
Direct and indirect benefits of MPAs
1
...
lead to return of healthy functioning ecosystems
iii
...
is heavily fished and large species are rare
2
...

monitored for 8 years and results persisted over 30 years

...
Case Study 2: MPA off coast of Norway to protect exploited lobster population
1
...

good species to protect because adults have small home ranges
a
...

effects seen after 2 years but clear after 5: abundance of lobsters higher inside MPA
c
...
Dip in catch rate 1km outside of boundary
i
...

Knowledge of fine detail of fishing can be useful to explain variation in abundance of fished stocks
2
...
3 habitats identified and species distribution driven by depth and
substrate type and shallow rocky habitat (48%) was associated with more
lobsters but this MPA does little to contribute to the regional marine
biodiversity
v
...
Study 1: comparing nitrogen isotopes of groups of animals and plants on
islands with and without rats

...
Study 2: compared basic biological parameters of fish

...

fish biomass higher on rat free islands and more functional activity like reef grazing and carbonate
removal by parrotfish
3
...
Protected areas of the world
1
...
9% marine environment protected but how should they be designated
and are the right places being protected?


...
2
...

Challenge is for international cooperation to designate open seas and lobby more nations to protect
oceanic wilderness
...

Important Stressors: commercial harvesting of capture fisheries

...
Industrial fisheries cover 55% of the ocean
2
...

maybe not because the spatial resolution of data is crucial here
...

Amoroso 2018: interpretation of impacts is dependent on a spatial scale:

...
BUT… the authors were not interested in the precise spatial scale of the fishing itself but the scale of impact
1
...
species that move more like sharks, then
longlining in one location can have important
effects at remote locations: broad effect
3
...
This information is needed to determine the efficacy of MPAs and the scale of benefits they provide
i
...
Patterns of fishing can be identified too
1
...

How good are MPAs?

...
MPAs with partial protection from fishing might not be good
1
...
Many MPAs across europe managed under OSPAR

...
Case Study 1: looked at data on distribution of fishing effort
1
...
fishers spend more time inside MPAs
3
...

MPAs should protect these species as they are long lived and slow growing
a
...
Very threatened species are most common outside MPAs including
common skate- IUCN red listed critically endangered species
iii
...
European shelf MPAs not great for fish
2
...

used dive survey to look at diversity and abundance
a
...

compare dive survey results to modelled expectations

...
MAPs did show differences and the most effective MPAs were those that met NEOLI criteria
ii
...
no take, well enforced, old, large and isolated
features
2
...

But other issues determine how effective an MPA will be

...
operating budget
ii
...

2
...

iv
...


outweighed any other environmental variable
like chlorophyll production
...

raise awareness of importance of seas for many goods services
a
...
But most need to be pressed by government and media to act so need to
have appropriate evidence

...

scientific influence on policy shouldn’t be underrated
e
...
protecting spaces
i
...
cleaning up pollution
iii
...
need to be positive and need good stories from success of MPAs in
enabling marine habitats and their species to recover
2
...
science helping to identify the issues and push policy makers to act
Thiault 2019: Island of moorea: Fully protected areas provided greater ecological benefits than moderately
protected areas
...
Shows the importance of using fully
protected MPAs over moderately protected MPAs to achieve conservation objectives, even in complex social–
ecological settings, but also stress the need to monitor effects and adapt management based on ongoing
assessments

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