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UNIT ONE IN-CLASS NOTES
8/21
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objects in space
movement of objects in space
Astronomy is the scientific study of the universe and everything inside of it & what is contains
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Science is a progress report & is constantly changing and science is an ongoing process
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What we know and how we learn it
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A mnemonic to remember the steps in a simplified version of the scientific method is :
People : problem
On : observations
Hairy : hypothesis
educated possible solution; educated because of the observations
Elephants : experiments
Always : analysis
Cry : conclusions
In 2006, Pluto got demoted and is not a planet anymore
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8/23
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What is a unit?
o The standard sizes we are comparing too that everybody agrees on
Units of length
o 1 meter=5280 feet
o 1 foot=12 inches
Metric units
smallest to largest
o Nanometer
10^-9
o Micrometer
10^6
o Millimeter
10^-3
o Centimeter
10^-1
o 1 meter
m
o 1 kilometer
km
o Megameter
= 1 million km
o Gigameter
=10^9
o Terameter
=10^12
trillions
Solar system = everything that belongs to sol, the sun
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Like the eight planets and 5 dwarfs
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184 moons
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4
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galaxy= stars bound together by gravity orbiting a common center of gas
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We get around 250 billion stars
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called island universes
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There is only one that we know of
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Our universe is
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The big bang is the start of the universe
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Create clusters called filaments and walls around voids
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49 x 10^8 km
o Used to measure things in the solar system
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Scale 10 cm= 1 AU
The speed of light is constant
Distance = speed X time
Units must cancel to do multiplication, so you have to convert
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5 times in a second
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5
Other sciences, you can see it in real time and you can touch the other sciences but in space, we
can’t see the sky as it is today
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8/28
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If a hypothesis always worked multiply times, it becomes a theory
A theory has been tested and it works
model: a description of nature
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9999% empty
Everything is made of atoms & atoms can be taken apart
Atoms
o Protons
o Neutrons
o Electrons
Plasma is an ionized gas
the atoms are charged
The universe started with the Big Bang
The Big Bang happened January 1st
The ancient Greeks and romans thought the earth was the center of the universe
o They thought the sky was a ball and turned around the earth once a day
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It’s the earth that’s spinning
The earth orbits the sun in 365
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The earth moves eastward against the stars
Some effects of the motion around the sun are that we see different stars in difference seasons
The sun moves around 1 degree per day around the stars
o That has consequences when the sun sets

8/30
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Globe is a model, the celestial sphere is a concept
Earth in the middle of a model is geocentric cosmology
The Earth rotates and revolves around the sun
It takes 24 hours for the Earth to spin
The earth spins toward the east, makes the people disappear towards the west
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Revolution
• Going around a point in space or object
• The earth is revolving around the sun
• The earth is rotating
• Takes a year for the earth to go around the sun, it’s not equal to a year but it’s shorter
because the earth wobbles
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Dayton’s latitude is 40 degrees because that’s where we are on the globe
At noon, you must face south to see it
• The shadow will be pointing north
The sun is never over head in Dayton
Angles
• Separation between two intersecting lines
• 360 degrees in a full circle
• Zenith and horizon is 90 degrees, ¼ of a circle
• Angular separation = one of the units to say how big something is
• The distance between two objects
• Angular size is one way we use angles
• The size of an object
• Tilt: angle between our rotational axis and perpendicular
• Coordinates
• Coordinates are also angles
• 1 degree= 60’ (x’= minutes)
• 60’ = 60” (x”=seconds)
• 3,600” in an hour/degree
What angle does the sun appear to travel along the ecliptic every day?
• The sun moves about one degree everyday
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360 degrees is 24 hour
• One hour, the Earth spins through 15 degrees
• In 60 mins, the Earth will spin another 15”
• In one degree, the difference is four minutes
• The actually time it takes for the Earth to spin once is four minutes short of the typical 24
hr
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These stars orbit the center of the galaxy and move because the Earth wobbles
The word planet means “wanderer” because the planets moved behind the stars
• The Greeks thought earth was not a planet because they were standing on it
Each of the day of week is named after a planet and the planets are named after the Greek gods,
like hercules and Neptune
We use the Anglo saxon names for the week names
• Sunday-for the sun, sol
• To the ancient Greeks, the sun and the moon were planets
• Monday - moon lunda
• Tuesday- from mars
• Wednesday -mercury
• Thursday- Jupiter
• Friday-Venus - friga
• Saturday-satum
• 7 days of the week because there were 7 planets to the Greeks and romans
Asterism - pattern of stars
Out of the 3000 stars you can see, only 300 have word names
Constellation: area or region of the sky
Take the sky, cut it into pieces and each piece is a constellation
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All boundaries= there are no boundaries
We connect the bright stars to make pictures, everything in a boundary in the sky, are in a
constellation
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On the earth we have longitude and latitude
Longitudes is east and west, 360 degrees each way so 720 is the most we can go
Latitude is north and south
The international date lines
• A line between Asian and Europe and north America
• When you step over it, you go one day forward (going west) or one day behind it (going
east)
• Europe and Asia is ahead of us
• We are the last ones to get anything
• At the same time, it can be two different dates
The poles don’t have longitude coordinates
Right ascension is the angle measured eastward from there the ecliptics and CE cross on the first
day of spring
The path of the sun= the ecliptic
The seasons depend on the sun
The Celestial equator → right above the earth’s equator
When the sun is going north - vernal equinox
start of spring
• Around March 20th
when the sun is going south → autumnal equinox
starts of Autumn
• Around September 21st
Summer solstice - the highest the sun is in the sky, around June 21
Winter solstice - the lowest the sun is in the sky, around December 21

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Mayans had a calendar that was based on Venus
• They had long cycles
• They thought the earth was going to end in 2012 but it was just their first cycle ending
The solstices are when the sun is as far away from the equator as it gets
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5 tilt
Tropic circles
• Tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn are the highest and lowest the sun will reach at
the solstices
• Summer solstices - tropic of cancer
• Winter solstice- tropic of Capricorn
Arctic circle
• Winter solstice - 24 hours of dark
Antarctic
• Winter solstice - 24 hours of light

9/6
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Light pollution is wasted
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The sun’s motion is in between the cardinal directions
We lose daylight as we get closer to winter
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5 mean solar days, we don’t have 29
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) must be evenly divisible by 400
We use the Gregorian calendar
• Pope Gregory the 14th did calendar reform
• The extra days has caused the VE to drift and spring wasn’t starting on the correct day
When is Easter → first Sunday after the first moon, after the VE?
• Easter would show up late if they didn’t change the calendar
Study about pope Gregory

9/11
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Phases of the moon and eclipses
Closest neighbor to earth
The moon is orbiting the Earth
The moon is naturally occurring satellite
Moon preliminaries
We never see the full moon
• We always see just one side of the moon
Synchronous rotation
• Set things equal, one spin = one orbit

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We call the side of the moon that we can’t see from here is called the ‘far side’ or the ‘other side’
or the ‘back side’
There are 8 phases of the moon
Waxing means growing and waning means shrinking
Waxing phases are visible during the evening
Waning phases are visible during the morning
Moon is only seen for 12 hours of the day
The new moon is up during the day at noon
Age of moon - age of the phase the moon is in
Harvest moon - first full moon closest to the autumnal equinox, can be before or after
• Normally in September but can be in October
Full moon is bright enough for farmers to harvest during the nighttime
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Perigee - when the moon is closest to the earth
Apogee- when the moon is the furthest from the earth
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3 days
The sidereal month is 27
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• Partial - if the moon gets the earth on the edge
• Penumbral - if the moon misses the earth entirely
Red light from the sun can make the moon red

9/13
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Astronomy is the oldest science
People have been looking at stars ever since they could look at stars

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9/18

Archeoastronomy- the study of how ancient cultures used astronomy to develop systems of time
and the calendar
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During Aristotle’s time, they did not have scientist, they have philosophers
Phases of the moon are not caused by the earth’s shadow
• The earth’s shadow is never straight
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Uniform circular motion - perfect circles at constant speeds
People thought the heaven had be perfect, so they lived a perfect life so that they would go to
heaven
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Eratosthenes measured the side of the earth
He found that the sun hit the Earth at different points, so he made an equation
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Hipparchus looked at the stars
Smaller the number, the brighter the object is how we use our magnitude scale for stars today
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The Earth orbits the sun, spins on an axis and wobbles
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Claudius Ptolemy made a model of the universe from Hipparchus and Aristotle's information
They thought the Earth stood still and the celestial sphere was going counterclockwise, and the
sun and moon were in between the sphere and earth and were going clockwork
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Claudius Ptolemy invented epicycle and deferent cycles
He wrote a book but the great library in Alexandria was burned so it was lost
Almagest means the greatest, he had in that book all the cycles and all the speeds
They used to believe in astrology
Astrology is not science
• Started over 2,000 years ago when they believed the god had an influence on your life
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• He made a simple version
• Wrote a book
• The book was published the year he died
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Books make people think and question if he could be right or not
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Put under house arrest, 70 years old and blind from looking at the sun
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His daughters were nuns and he was buried by one of his daughters
Sir Isaac Newton
o He was too busy to go to his own wedding
o Discovered the universal law of gravitation
o An apple hit him on the head, and he discovered gravity
o Invented calculus, the other one was a German
o Came up with three laws of motion
Gravity is an attractive force; it’s always pulling never pushing
A force - push or pull
Weight - pull of gravity
Weight if a force
Force’s units are newton
Only four shapes gravity can be:
o Ellipses and circles will come back, but hyperbola and parabola will not come back
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9/25/18
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Light is electromagnetic radiation

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Radioactivity is a reaction that shoots out particles
James clerk Maxwell, studies electricity and magnetism
Wanted to study charges that moved
Developed equations
The attraction between opposite charges is responsible for chemical bonding
Field - how objects interact if they’re not touching
Earth sets up a gravitational field and the moon is inside of the field, so the moon is
interacting in the field, not the earth
Sound is compression wave
o Requires a medium to travel through
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Trough to trough or crest to crest is counted as one wavelength
We use the Greek letter, lambda for symbolize wavelength
The speed of light is 3
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Double one, cut the other in half
o Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional
Between the earth and sun is a vacuum
o Light will travel through empty space
o Sound cannot travel through the vacuum thought; it requires something to
compress
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You go twice as far, it’s going to be 4 times dimmer
Spectrum - to spread something out
With light, when we say spectrum, we’re going to spread the light out
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o Humans radiate infrared

9/27/18
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Purple is the pigment and violet are the light that it’s reflecting because the human eye
cannot see violet
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In emission, dropping to a lower
lever and giving off energy
The doppler effect
o How it’s moving, waves get stretched as they’re moving away and scrunched
when moving towards you
o Caused by the motion of the object relative to the observer
o Can be used to measure the speed of objects in space, used for radial velocity
Toward you, wavelength is compressed, and frequency is higher, blue shifted
Away is redshifted
Radial velocity is like spokes in a wheel
Motion that doesn’t change its distance from you is circular
The type of motion that DOES NOT cause a doppler effect is a tangent line - tangential
velocity
Speed of the object / speed of the wave = change of the wavelength/ wavelength is rest
o Change in wavelength / wavelength in lab
Negative is toward, positive is away
Light can be brought to a focus in two ways
o Bounding and bending
Bouncing is reflection, bending is refraction
We use refraction to bring light to a point
o We need to use a convex lenses
For a lenses
o How wide is it and what the focal length is
Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

10/4/18
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Images are inverted, so pictures are backwards
Least important thing a telescope does is magnify
m= f
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Objective / fl
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▪ Every asteroid is orbiting the sun
▪ Minor planet is what we used to call asteroids
o Must have enough mass to be pulled into a sphere
▪ Must be round
o A planet must have to clear it’s orbital space
Physical
o Size
o Mass
o Density
o Composition
Terrestrial is earth like
o Mercury, Venus, ,earth and mars
Jovian planets are Jupiter like
o Jupiter, Saturn, uranus and neptune
o Can be called giant planets
Mass is stuff and measured in either grams or kilograms
Volume is 3 dimensional space
o L x w he
o Centimeters or meters cubed
Density of water is 1 g/cm^3
o Water is used to set the scale

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o 1 gram per unit density
Rock is more dense because it sinks if it’s in water
o Rock is anywhere from 2 -3 g/cm^3
Density tells us what types of materials things are made of
Somewhere inside of earth is denser than rock and water
o Which leads us to believe we have an iron core
Mercury is the most iron rich planet of the solar system
Saturn is the least dense planet because it has little mass in a large size
Neptune’s surface is frozen, no gaseous atmosphere the surface is slush, a big slush
ball

10/11/18
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7 large moons
o Earths
o Io
o Europa
o Ganymede
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Calisto
▪ 4 Galilean moons of jupiter -what he saw through his telescope
o Titan - with Saturn
o Triton - with Neptune
Large moons are moons because they orbit a planet, not the sun
o Size is not something that makes something a planet
Asteroids are very small, only about km wide
o Left overs from the terrestrial planets
Comets are made of ice and dust
o Dirty snowballs of the universe
o Left over from the Jovian planets
o Orbits are eccentric
o Keilter belt objects
▪ When they get kicked out, they become comets
Earth formed from comets
Comets vaporize as they get closer to the sun
Dust grains between the planets
Small bits of dust -meteoroids
Meteor Showers are related to comets
Neon and helium are noble gasses
o They are special
o Do not bond to make molecules
o Anti-social
Hydrogen is the most common
Water, ammonia, and methane are ices
o Very common
Gold is hard to make
o It’s made by merging neutron stars which does not happen often
o Only way it’s made
Hydrogen and helium were made in the big bang
You cannot have liquids in space because there’s not enough pressure for them to
exist
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Two forms of heat
o Collisions
o Naturally occurring radioactive decay
radioactive decay is still heating the inside of the earth
Differentiation is what gives our planets layers
Asteroids are the oldest rocks in the solar system
We date meteorites to get the age of the solar system
Venus has the hottest because it’s atmosphere has trapped heat
o The greenhouse effect, how we learned about the greenhouse effect
Mercury has the greatest range of temp
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2 km/second - 25,000 miles per hour
Gas - look at the temperature
o Give the average speed of the gas
o Hotter it is, the faster it will go
Absolute temp is proportional to kinetic energy
o Kinetic energy depends on the mass
Geological activity can erase craters
o Driven by internal heat
young surfaces have fewer craters
Earth is geologically active, we have a young surface
o The rocks are a few million old
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5 billion years
The surface of the moon is older than the surface of the earth
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10/16/18
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Contracts and evidence are the same thing
Constraints are three main types
o Motion, chemical and age
All the planets orbit the sun in nearly same orbits, same direction and nearly same plane
o What caused this ?
▪ We had a disc and the plants formed in the disc
▪ Solar nebula theory
• Nebula is a cloud
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▪ The dust are the solids
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• Slowly spun
Something that pushed on the cloud (possibly a supernova)
The cloud was cold
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▪ Slow change
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The sun formed in the middle of the disc
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▪ Big and can hold onto hydrogen and helium
Jovian and terr
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Planets did
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The terr
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But before Jupiter, water froze, creating
ice
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o It got large and it’s far from the sun
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The further off the disc you go, the less materials there are
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The solar system is 4
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We date the oldest parts of the solar system
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Rocks on earth are recycles and reformed
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This
explains the orbits
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Planetesimals make protoplanets are smaller little planets
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o If they ran into each other, they would collide and get used up
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Jovian’s formed first because they're larger and attract mass faster
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The process of planet making took about 100 million years
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There is dust in the solar system, still
Jupiter throws parts of its planet to the outside of the solar system
Keiper belts was created from the Jovian planets throwing their stuff out
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Star- A naturally occurring nuclear reactor
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We see stars forming
o They form in large groups
Proplyds are disc around the stars
extra solar or exo planets are things orbiting stars
There are over 3,000 exoplanets
2 methods to detect exoplanets
o Radial velocity
▪ First Method that worked well
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▪ We looked for the star to wobble
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▪ The motion is small and we cannot detect it
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▪ We see the doppler shift, we look for the blue and red shift in the stars
spectrum
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o And transit method
▪ Must put something in orbit to find out
▪ We detect the dimming
▪ Kepler found 150,000 stars looking for planets and found that a lot of
stars have planets
Jovian planets migrate until they settle down in their orbits
You can put a planet near a star
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Terrestrials are hot because they’re near the sun
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Did not have
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Earth is mostly heavy elements
o The earth is just not massive enough to hold them
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Earth’s surface is covered with rocks
We use seismic waves to study how things travel through things
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S waves will not travel through iron
P-waves get bent
Shadow zones- where you get no waves at all
By measuring the waves of the earthquakes, we can figure out where the
boundaries are and what the materials are
Earth’s crust is very thin, rocky and solid
o Mantel - solid, except for the part under the crust, not quite liquid but not
quite solid
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The deeper you go, the higher the pressure an the melting point changes
We have a magnetic field and we must have a liquid metal in the interior
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You also need spin (fast) to
create a magnetic field
o Same rotation of the earth
Solar wind - particles, proton and electrons from the sun since it’s spitting out
charged particles, 400 m/ph
o Very fast moving charged particles
o Interact with the earth's magnetic field
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Van Allen belts - where protons and electrons orbit the earth over the equator
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Radioactive radiation - charged particles moving very fast
The solar wind is dangerous to technology because they’re charged particles and
they’re moving fast
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Igneous are from the molten state
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Diamonds are 3 dimensional bonds
Marble is metamorphic
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Primitive rock is not longer on the surface of the earth
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What is a rock?
o Solid, made from minerals, minerals are pure substances, made from
minerals
The continents used to be one - Pangea
Pangea is not the first supercontinent, ridinia
Nobody believed Alfred Wegener about plate tectonics
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It was pushing the plates apart and that what
was causing the drift
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Earth has a layer structure due to density
71% of the earth is covered in water, 29% land
The entire surface of mars is the same amount of earth
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Liquid iron interior and you need the iron to move, the circulation of the iron is the
rotation of the earth
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Mercury and earth have some
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Mercury is the most iron rich planet in the solar system
Jovian planets have magnetic fields
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The liquid metal in Jupiter is hydrogen
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Earth’s magnetic field protects us from the solar wind, a stream of charged
particles that flow outward from the sun
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Earth’s crust is broken into plates and 3 different rocks
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Hawaii is a bunch of volcanoes
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o It was not accepted at the time
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o 1950’s, 40 years later, we discovered the Mid Atlantic ridge
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o Proposed Pangea
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o They must have been connected in the past for them to be there
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Then east, west
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o Rift is when PT move away from each other
Subduction zone, creating trenches when PT’s go above each other and the other
goes below
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o Depend on the material
Conduction
o Through contacts and bonds
o Best with solids
Convection
o Liquids and gases
o Circulation, moving the warm material around
Radiation
o Electromagnetic radiation
o Losing energy by emitting photons
If the Atlantic ocean is growing, the pacific is shrinking
The ring of fire - a lot of geological activity around that place, the pacific plate
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o The sky will go black because there is like nothing above you
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o No energy, not dense, very hot as you go up
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Our co2 is locked in rocks and in the bottom of the sea
If you warm up the ocean, you’d be putting the co2 back, which would be bad
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All the terr
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Water fell out of the clouds,
water dissolve some of the gases in the oceans
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Plants convert co2 to oxygen and then plants put n2
back into the atmosphere
Weather - short term atmosphere changes, the conditions that we have right now
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They average 30 years to get the average temperature
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Some of the sunlight
gets bounces back up, ground heats and radiated infrared, need the same
input and output of sunlight to get balance, some infrared gets trapped,
water and clouds trap infrared, co2 traps and methane traps infrared and
that's what's causing the greenhouse effect
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o Causing global warming
Evidence for GW

10/30/18
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Fossil fuels are stored solar energy
The moon orbits the earth in 27
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The cycle of phases is 29
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The moon wobbles, the wobbles are called librations
Going around the ecliptic, not the equator
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Dark side- far side of the moon
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o Vaporize at low temperatures
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Lacking in iron and has no atmosphere
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Moons has a low gravitational pull
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Apollo, one had an explosion
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Apollo 2-7 were not manned #8 orbited the moon and came back
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It checked to make sure everything docked
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A 19 & 20 were never built
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Neil Armstrong was the first to step, buzz was the second
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Water is near the south pole
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Particles above the surface become moon’s exosphere
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2 different types of rocks on the moon:
In Latin, maria means ‘seas ‘
o ‘Mare’ is one of the black spots on the moon
The dark places on the moon is basalt
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The dark spots were
caused by impacts
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Maria is only 17%
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The moon is geological dead
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Earth age and the moon age are very similar
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Craters are all roundish and made from the shockwave, the object that hit the
moon is ejected
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Craters will have central peaks
Quarter phases are the best times to see the moon to see features, they will cast
shadows and give better contrast
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11/1/18
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Maria are not as nearly as old as the highlands
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Something hit the moon and created the maria
Cratering is constant, things are always running into things
Moon does not have an atmosphere
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The thin layer of powder and broken rock is regolith
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These small collisions have worn away the surface rock
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Mars is also covered in regolith
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o Lack’s iron and water, lacking things that turn into gases
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o Sister hypothesis - earth and moon were formed at the same time
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Giant impact hypothesis
o Something hit earth and then part of the earth fell off
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o Material that formed the ring, created the moon
It was far enough from the earth that the earth’s gravity did not prevent it from
coming together
Tidal forces will stretch and object out if it gets inside the roche limit
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Venus has the most circular orbit
Venus is the brightest object in our sky
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Venus is always seen near the sun
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Mercury is the smallest and the smallest
Most iron rich
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Has a magnetic field because we did not expect it to have one, small things cool off
fast so we thought the iron would have solidified
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3-2 spin orbit coupling -- does not have synchronized rotation
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Scrap - mercury cooled off and its core shrunk and dropped, it’s a fault caused by
the shrinking of a planet and wrinkling of a surface
...

Mercury was once molten and entirely covered by lava and then cooled off
...
The mantle was torn off by impact
...

Venus is like earth’s evil twin
...

o Clouds are made of sulfur
Venus’s surface is dry and there are low wind speeds
...

More atmosphere than the earth, very hot and you must get past the sulfuric acid
clouds
...

o There could have been a lot of large collisions and one could have made it go
the other way
...

Venus is very flat
...

o Ishtar (northern hemisphere) and aphrodite terra (equator)
o All but one name on venus are female
...

Sulfur in the air - something is re supplying the planet with sulfur in the air
...

o The crust is thin and it’s bendable
...

Venus earth and mars, the atmosphere came from volcanoes
...
There is no water on
venus
...

Mars use to have a magnetic field
...

It’s red from iron oxide
...

The best time to see mars is when it’s in opposition (when it’s the closest to Earth)
-- every two years
...

Little to no air pressure on mars, liquids cannot be on the surface
...

Volcanoes on venus and mars have shield volcanoes
...

Mars has powered rock on the surface and forms dunes
...
The winds on mars is not that strong
...


11/20/18

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The rings and moons have rocky matieral and icy ices
...

New ice is white and older ice is darker
...
Carbon interacting with water,
hydrogen and uv light makes dark carbon compounds
...

The older, the blacker the dark it’s color
...

Orbits are due to gravity
...

In this case, if two objects have a whole number ratio of their periods, they will
affect each other
...

Callisto has the oldest icy surface, not heated
...

o Methane cycle is on titan
...

o It’s in the retrograde orbit
...

o Thin atmosphere, but it’s really an exosphere
...

o Discovered by comparing picture of fixed objects and moving objects
against a backdrop of stars
...

Moons are important because it allows us to calculate mass (of an object)
Pluto is smaller than our moon
...

Pluto and the moon keep the same sides facing each other
...

Plutos has 4 other moons
...

Charon looks like it was fractured and it has a weird red cap on it
...

Ices run into each other and make mountains, tidal forces possibly from it’s large
moon
...

All 4 have rings but some are not visible
...

Uranus’s rings was when the earth is moving faster than uranus is moving
...
In 1977, when a star passed behind uranus, the star dimmined before and
after it got to uranus
...

Thin and dark rings, old ice, the ring particles are as black as coal
...

It did not work with neptune
...

Neptune has a ring systme, but stellar occulation did not work
...

Moons that get too close a planet can create rings, if the moon gets in the roche
limit, the planet’s force will rip apart the moon/object it will be ripped apart and
then be distributed around the ring
...

Saturn’s rings are not as old as saturn because the ice in the rings are young white
ice
...

Jupitar’s rings are dust rings that were formed by strikes on it’s outter moons
...

Jupitar’s dust rings are not reflective
...

o b is the brightest ring
...

D ring, very closest to the planet
...

Cassini vidion is produced by the moon mimas (a moon of saturn)
o They regullary line up
...

Pan is the cloest moon to saturn
...

o The f ring looks like it’s kinked/braided
...

The moons are called sheapard moons
...

E ring, wide but dim rings
...

The moon is producing the e ring by having volcanos
...

The moon dumps 400 lbs in to space every second
...

They’re so thin, we cannot see them from here when we see it by it’s equator
...
The particles are small and help close to
the plane
...

Ceres 1801, first ass to be discovered
...

Lagrange points, if an ass gets in that point it’s stuck because the forces will try to
put it back if it tries to leave
...

The ass belt is not distributed uniformly
...

There are gaps in the ass belt, caused by jupitar
...

Jupiter has a large effect on the solar system, it’s the reason that we get new
comets
...

How do astronomers distinguish things in the solar system : (questions from hw 10)
o Things that are in the ss move against a fixed background of stars, they
move
...

Terrestrial planets never got big enough to hold the hydrogen and helium
The jovian planets got so big they ate all the gasses up
Common ices : water ice, methane, ammonia
...

Ice does not equal solid
o It will turn into a gas at a low temperature, does not mean solid
...

In the early solar system, the rocks and ices were not a big abundance to build
planets from
Jupiter and Saturn are mostly hydrogen and helium and that is why they’re called
‘gas giants’
o They’re also colder
o The gas is froze, more of ice planets
There have only been 8 spacecraft that have gone to the jovian planets
You must go thru the asteroid belt to get to the gas giants
...

Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that flew by all 4 gas planets
...

▪ Did a slingshot and sped up
...

Pluto was out of line and that’s why we did not visit pluto
...

Ulysses did not study Jupiter
Galileo probed jupiter and went into jupiter - launched in 1989
...

NH did the fly by of pluto in 2015, launched in 2006- took 9 years to get to pluto
...

Voyager one is the furthest SC from the sun
...

Jupiter Orbiters
o Galileo and Cassini
Jupiter is hot as you go down below the clouds
...
The interior of Jupiter
would be 3500 Kelvin, it’s very hot and it’s not done cooling off yet
...

o It’s a low pressure storm/hurricane
o It’s an anticyclone
...

o It may go away
Uranus is blue and clear
...

Uranus does not have an internal energy source, there is no convection
...

Uranus has a great dark spot but it went away very quickly
...
The moon might have life
...

Juno finds out about the interior of Jupiter
...

Reds & browns are created by ice crystal clouds, Jupiter and Saturn
Uranus and Neptune are blue from the ice crystals methane
...

How do we know what the middle of the planet is doing?
o Magnetic fields are linked from the centers
...

Jupiter has the shortest day of any planet
Saturn is the least dense
All the gas planets spin faster than 24 hours, they’re going very fast
...

Jupiter’s equator goes around in less time than it’s north pole
...
Saturn’s tilt is 27 degrees and has
seasons
...

o Seasons are 21 years long because it takes 84 years to go around the sun
...

o Spins sideways
Jupiter has a rocky core, it’s smaller than the earth and 8x as massive
...

If you dissolve ammonia into water, it’s a conductor and gives uranus and neptune a
magnetic field
...

They radiate more energy than they get from the sun
...

Jupiter has heat from formation
Saturn has cooled off enough and the helium is falling out of the atmosphere as
rain
...

Uranus does not have an internal energy source

11/15/18
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Jupiter is larger than saturn, 3x the mass not the size of saturn
...

Uranus and neptune are closer twins than the earth and venus
...

Strongest magnetic field produced by liquid metallic hydrogen
...

o Water with dissolved ammonia
...

Uranus does not have an internal energy source
...
- how it gets gravity
...

ammonia , reds and browns, methane creates blue clouds
Jupiter - galileo
Saturn - cassini
Saturn is not spherical
...

o Determines how much mass is in the core of the planet
...

Saturn has more of it’s mass in it’s core than jupiter
...

Uranus was discovered in 1781
...

Uranus was an accidental discovered
...

Uranus had a wobble, not staying in it’s path
...

o Two people using how much deviation, what mass object was needed to
produce the wobble and where it would be located
...

Today, we give both the people that found it credit
...

It shows that gravity works long distance and it works the same no matter how far
away the object is
...

Neptune was predicted
...

The moons are also icy as well as rocky
...

o The older the ices, the darker it is
...


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Comet nuclei and rings are the darkest things
...

If it goes around counterclockwise and viewed from the north, prograde
Jovian planets tend to be larger
...

Jupiter has 79 moons, the most moons
Jupiter has a thin dust ring
...

Saturn has 62 moons
...
Only moon with a
substantial atmosphere
...

Titan is colder because its further from the sun
...
The rings are not as old as
saturn
...

o 5 of the moons are large enough to be spheres
...
- cannot see them from earth
...

▪ Something on both sides so we saw something go dark
...

Voyager found neptune’s rings
...

o Largest moon - triton
▪ Largest captured items
...
But it will never hit
neptune
...

All four jovian planets have rings
...

The was a proto jupiter
...

Callisto is both rock and not dense
...

Organic means is produced by nature things, not living
...

Ganymede has both old and new ice
...

o Has an ‘oxygen’ atmosphere
...

Europa is active
o Heat source : tidal flexing
...

o Best place to look for life other than Earth
...

o There are volcanoes erupting on the moon
...

o The names on of the volcano on Io is the names from earth
...

o Most lava is rock
...
Around jupiter, there is
a ring of charged particles from Io
Io’s orbit is full of charged particles in a fast moving field
...

The moons of jupiter are always getting pulled from other objects around jupiter
...

Titan has a thicker atmosphere than earth, most of it is atmosphere
...

On Titan, there is a methane cycle than a water cycle
...

Methane will exist at all three states
...

Titan’s surface is rocky and there is smog
...

o Cannot see the surface because of methane in the clouds
...

o In retrograde orbit, tells us that it was captured
...

o Rock and ice
o Has a thin atmosphere, but it’s not really an atmosphere
...

Pluto was named by a contest, asked for submissions and they pulled out of a hat
...

New horizons flew by pluto
...

Asteroids are from the terr
...

Asteroids have very few volatile
...

Comets come from the ort cloud or by jupiter
...

Largest and first Asteroid was Ceres
o Called a planet for 50 years
...

Asteroids was not coined until 1850
...

The asteroid belt runs from 2-3
...

o Ceres is 2
...

The mass of all the Asteroids in the belt, you wouldn’t get pluto, no material in the
Asteroids
...

o We take pictures at diff
...

Max wolf found nearly 200 Asteroids from pictures
...

o Newer ones have stone
o Metallics can happen with large Asteroids by differentiate
...

Meteorites - must survive thru the atmosphere, no ice can be on that rock
...

Meteoroid - in space, small dust grain bits, no status as major object
Meteor - flashes thru the sky, when it hits the atmosphere, compresses the air in
the atmosphere and the air heats and it causes it to streak
...

o They can also have rings & ring systems
...

It is believing that an collision into the earth caused the extinction of the
dinosaurs
...

o Sunlight was lost for years
...

Ten years later, plants were starting to come back
...

Trojan Asteroids orbit Jupiter
...

Comets are some of the darkest things in the solar system
...

o That’s the coma, that’s what we can see
...

The coma contains ions and dust particles
...

tail produced by solar wind and light
...
The dust tail is white and produced by light
...

Dust tail - produced by light pushing dust
...
The ones from the oort cloud have
periods of 1,000 years or more
...

Coma, dust tails and the nucleus - parts of a comet
...

When they go around the sun too many times, they come apart and get destroyed
...

They leave stuff behind and earth runs through the leftovers and that’s how we get
meteor showers
...

The constellation they appear to radiate from - how meteor showers get their
name
...

Meteor showers are related to comets, we run thru the debris that it leaves
behind
...

Asteroids, you can propose a name
Meteor showers come the constellations that they appear that they come from
...
Comets
are going to vaporize in the atmosphere
...

o
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Review In A Nutshell

Jupiter
• Biggest planet
• Has the smallest tilt
• Biggest magnetic field
...

Saturn
• Only visible ring system from earth
...

• Least dense planet, less dense than water
...

• The shepherd moons keep the f ring kinked - Prometheus and pandora
• Biggest moon - titan
• Has a good atmosphere
• Methane cycle on the titan moon
...

• Shakespeare moons
• Stellar occultation
...

• Ice methane that causes the planet’s blue color
• Has a moon in retrograde orbit
...

• Magnetic fields are highly tilted and off centered
...
We see gaps in the asteroid belts
called the kirkwood gaps
...

Comets are named by discovered
Asteroids suggest a name

Book Notes
8-21-18 Ch
...
1
...
3
• 1
...

o Science is a progress report because it’s always changing
...
2 The Nature of Science
o Science is a method to understanding nature
o Models- approximations of nature, subject to further testing
...

o Hypothesis- first proposed, new models or ideas
o Scientists don’t know what dark energy is
o A hypothesis must be able to be tested and experimented on
o Astronomy is sometimes called observational science and historical science
o Astronomers are like detectives
o Scientists question each other all the time
...
3 The Laws of Nature
o Scientific laws are rules by which nature platys
o The laws of nature helps us understand distant objects
o Scientific laws and models can change all the time
...

o You must have patience to observe scientific models
o Scientists like to describe in their models in equations and not words
...
4-1
...
4 Numbers of Astronomy
o Scientists deal with astronomical numbers by scientific notation
o The number that’s raised by the ten is the exponent
o Scientists deal with astronomical numbers by using the metric international system of
units
o Light-year- the distance light travels in one year
o Speed is the fastest speed in the universe
o Light travels at 3 x 10^12 kilometers
...

o The closest star is 4
...

• 1
...

o Looking light years into space, we see billions of years back
...

• 1
...


Water covers ⅔ of Earth
Nearest neighbor of Earth is the moon
...

The moon is ¼ the size of the Earth
...
3 seconds to make a full circle
...

Astronomical Unit - the average distance from the earth to the sun
...

Takes Earth one year to evolve around the sun
Earth travels at 110,000 kilometers per hour or 66,000 miles per hour
...

We see the other 7 planets from the light of the sun
...

Sun is just one of billions of stars
The space between stars has interstellar dust
Intercellular dust can build up, like fog, and block the light from other stars
...

M9 is the largest star cluster with 250,000 stars and is 25,000 light-years away
...

• 1
...

o Clusters can form superclusters
o Quasars - center of galaxies, glowing with the light of an extraordinary energetic
process
...

o Farther than Quasars, we see the glow from the big bang
8-28-18 Ch 1 S 1
...
9
• 1
...

o Molecules are built into atoms
• 1
...

8-30-18 Ch 2 S 2
...
1,4
...
1 The Sky Above
o Geocentric- an earth center view
...

o Horizon - where the dome meets the Earth, the circle around you
...

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

•

A transparent ball with stars on the inside
Planetarium - projection of a simulation of the stars and planets on a white dome
...

The stars are always moving but the sun’s too bright to see them
Sun is scattered by molecules of our atmosphere, filing the sky with light
...

Ecliptic - the path the sun appears to take around the celestial sphere
...

The planet is on a 23
...

The inclination of the ecliptic is the reason the sun moves north and south during seasons
...

o Planets have independent motions among the stars
...

o Planet means ‘wanderer’
o The ancients called the moon and sun planets
o There are seven days of the week because of the 7 planets
...

o There are 88 constellations in the sky
o Constellations are like states in the USA
o There are boundaries in the sky
o Asterism - star pattern
▪ Ex : the Big dipper is an asterism in the constellation of Ursa Major
...

Ch 4 S 4
...

o longitude - the number of degrees of arc along the equator between the meridian andthe
one passing through the prime meridian
...

o Latitude and longitude are known as declination and right ascension
...

Vernal equinox - point in sky where the sun’s path (ecliptic) cross the celestial equator
...

360 degrees of RA is 24 hours
Each 15 degrees of RA is one hour
French physicist, JEan Foucault provided a demonstration of Earth’s rotation in the 19th
century
...
2 The Seasons
o We divide the earth into seasons
o Each season had a different amount of sunlight
o Ellipse - Earth’s orbit around the sun
...

o In the summertime, the rays are more directly than in the winter
o June 21 is the summer solstice
o The sun shines more directly in the northern hemisphere
o Refraction - the bending of light passing through air or water
...

o The hottest months in the northern hemisphere is july and august
9-4-18 Ch 4 S 4
...
5
• Ch 4 S 4
...

o Apparent solar time - time reckoned by the actual position of the usn in the sky
o Sundials have apparent solar time
o During the first half of the day, the sun has not yet reached the meridian
...

o A mean solar day contains exactly 24 hours
o At the end of the 19th century, each town had it’s own mean time
...

o The international date line is not a straight line, but rather curvy and rigid
...
4 The Calendar
o There are two uses to a calendar
▪ Keeping track of time over the course of long spans
▪ Useful to many people, something everybody can agree on
o Months are based on the moons cycles
o Days are based on the period of rotation of the Earth
o Year is based on the period of revolution of Earth about the sun
...

o The chinese was able to make a calendar with the 12 cycles of jupiter
o The sumerians, Egyptians and greeks around the 8th century led to the Julian calendar,
made by Julius caesar
...

o The Julian Calendar was off 11 minutes and it got to a point where spring was starting 20
days earlier
...

• Ch 4 S 4
...

The moon is full if you’re on the left side of the Earth and it’s the middle of the night
...

The moon revolved around us
Moon’s sidereal period = the period of its revolution about EArth measured with respect
to the stars -- 27 days
...

o The moon always keep the same face turned towards the Earth
o Dark side - back side of the moon
9-6-18 Ch 4 S 4
...
2
• Ch 4 S 4
...

o Solar Eclipse - when the moon’s shadow hits the Earth
o The shadows consist of 2 parts
▪ Umbra - where it’s the darkest
▪ Penumbra - region where it’s the lightest
o The angular side of the moon and sun vary depending on their distances from the Earth
...

o If the sun and moon are property aligned, then the moon’s darkest shadow intersects the
ground at a small point on Earth’s surface
...

o Partial solar Eclipse - observers on a larger area of Earth's surface who are in the
penumbra (light side ) will only see a part of the sun eclipsed by the moon
...

o The average time for an Eclipse is about 7 minutes
...

▪ There is a lot of traveling by water and air, you need money
...

o During a solar Eclipse, the sky gets so dark that we could see some of the planets and
stars
o corona - sun’s outer atmosphere, consisting of sparse gases that extend for millions of
miles in all directions from the apparent surface of the sun
...

o Lunar can take place when the sun, earth and moon are in line
...

o Lunar Eclipses can last up to 1 hour and 40 minutes
...

o Eclipses can be predicted centuries in advance due to our technology
...

• Ch 2 S 2
...

o
o
o
o
o

o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o

▪ Their yearly cycle corresponded with the flooding of the nile river
...

Mayan culture madea calendar based on the Venus
...

Cosmology - our concept of the cosmos where it came from and it’s origin(s)
Anvicnet’s cosmology included theri beliefs of the heavens and philosophical and
religious symbolisms
Pythagoras said that sphere are perfect forms and therefore, the earth should be a sphere
Greeks said the moon should be a sphere as well
Asistole
▪ Tutor of alexander the great (King of Ancient greek Kingdom)
▪ Describe the moon's phases and how the sun had to be far away
▪ Arguments were that the Earth had to be around because the shadow on the moon
was round and that if the earth was flat everybody would be able to see the stars
but as travelers crossed a curved surface, they saw the stars at angles
...

Parallax- the apparent shift in direction of an object as a result of the motion of the
observer
...

Philosophers did not want to take guess about the cosmos so they played it safe and
retreated to the geocentric world thinking
...
He did the diameter by observing the sun
Hipparchus
▪ Astronomy from Turkey
▪ Made an observatory on the island of Rhodes
▪ Made a star catalog of about 850 entries
...

Divided the stars into apparent magnitudes and brightnesses
...

Precession - direction in Earth's axis points does not change but is regular
The Earth’s wobble happens because the Earth is not a perfect sphere
...

Ptomey constructed his representation only using circle
Epicycle - having each planet revolve in a small orbit
Deferent - the center of the epicycle then revolved about Earth
Equant point - uniform circular motion around another axis

9-11-18 Ch 2 S 2
...
4 & Ch 3 S 3
...
3
• Ch 2 S 2
...

o Astrology began in babylonia
o The babylonians thought the planets influences the kings wealth
o Greeks then took over babylonia and then the whole western world believe it and soon
asia
o Greeks said that astrology influence everybody as individuals
o The configurations of Earth, Sun and the mon would tell a person's personality
...

▪ Translated to “Marker of the Hour”
o Zodiac as divided into 12 signs
o Each sign was named after a constellation
o Sign is also known as ‘sun sign’
o Over time, the zodiacs have gotten out of place
o Each sign and planet is supposed to be associated with one’s life
o Astrologers cast horoscopes and suggest interpretations
...
4 The Birth of Modern Astronomy
o Nicolaus Copernicus
▪ Developed a heliocentric (sun centered) universe
▪ Wrote “de revolutionibus orbium coelestium”
o He placed the plants in the correct order

o
o
o
o

Galileo studies how things accelerate
...

telescope s were called spy glasses
Lippershey discovered spy glasses but Galileo put the spy glasses together and edited the
spyglass to make it more powerful, thus becoming a telescope
o He turned the telescope to the heavens (the sky) and saw stars and other details of things
that nobody knew was there
...
1 The Laws of Planetary Motion
o Orbit - the path of an object in space
o Kepler found that the path of a planet was like ellipse
o Ellipse - the simplest kind of closed curve, belonging to the conic sections
...

o p^2=a^3
o P is the orbital period and a is the AU
o Kepler’s first law: Each planet moves around the Sun in an orbit that is an ellipse, with
the Sun at one focus of the ellipse
...

o Kepler’s third law: The square of a planet’s orbital period is directly proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit
• Ch 3 S 3
...

o Newton’s second law: The change of motion of a body is proportional to and in the
direction of the force acting on it
...

o Momentum - The law states that in the absence of any outside influence, there is a
measure of a body’s motion
• Ch 3 S 3
...
4-3
...
6
• Ch 3 S 3
...
5
• Ch 3 S 3
...
6
• Ch 4 S 4
...

o tide - raising forces make bulges in the ocean

o
o

Opposite of the moon, water makes a tidal bulge
The water moves to region below and above the moon, causing water to pile up in
different places
...
Tidal bulges occur on both sides of
the Earth
...
The tides produced by the sun
kind of cancel the moon’s tides, making them less powerful
...
1-5
...
1 The Behavior of Light
o Light changes the way atoms behave
o Other types of radiation can carry information to us
o Radiation is a general term for waves that radiate outward from a source
o James Clerk Maxwell
▪ Born in scotland
▪ Created a theory describing both electricity and magnetism
o The theory maxwell created gives us insides into the nature and behavior of light
o An atom has particles that are charged
o In the nucleus, there are positively charged protons

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