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General Biology: Ecology & Physiology
Anatomy & Physiology

Connective Tissues
● Loose tissue
● Dense tissue (fibrous, holds tissue tightly)
● Fluid tissue (functions in transport)
● Supporting tissue

Epithelial Tissue
● Epithelia cover outside of body, line surfaces of organs, & form glands
● Provides protection as selected water & nutrients move in / out of a surface
● Apical side (faces outer environment)
Basolateral side (faces animal’s interior)
Basal Lamina (connects epithelia to other tissues)

Animal Nutrition
● 2 basic requirements:
1) Chemical energy for ATP
2) Carbon
● Heterotrophs (obtain nutrients & energy from elsewhere ; cannot self-produce sugars)
● Essential nutrients: those that cannot be synthesized including:
1) Vitamins (organic)
2) Minerals (inorganic)
3) Amino acids
4) Fatty Acids

Gnathostomes
● Jawed fishes: cartilaginous fishes, ray-finned fishes, coelacanths, lungfishes
● Cartilaginous fishes have jaws made of cartilage
● Natural selection acted on genes determining gill arch morphology

Digestive Tract

● Incomplete digestive tracts have one opening for the digestion of food & waste
elimination
● Mouth (enzymes in saliva begin chemical breakdown of lipids & carbs)
● Salivary amylase​ (enzyme that initiates digestion process by breaking down starch into
smaller molecules)
● Tongue cells secrete ​lingual lipase​ which begins the digestion of lipids
● Peristalsis​: wave of muscle contractions
● Liver (secretes molecules that aid in fat digestion)
● Gallbladder (stores secretions from liver & empties into small intestine)
● Pancreas (secretes enzymes into small intestine)
● Small intestine (chemical processing of fats, proteins, & carbs)
● Large intestine (absorbs water & forms feces)
● Stomach (chemical digestion of protein)
● Appendix (contains immune tissue & harbors bacteria)

Stomach
● Bracketed on both ends by ring-like sphincters
● Muscle contractions (peristalsis) from esophagus results in stomach churning that breaks
down food mechanically
● Chief cells secrete a pepsin precursor called pepsinogen that is converted to pepsin w/
hydrochloric acid (HCI)
● Parietal cells secrete HCI (located at stomach lining)
● Pepsin (enzyme) digests proteins

Small Intestine
● Large surface area for absorption of nutrients & water due to the epithelial tissue being
covered w/ projections called villi and microvilli

Large Intestine
● Absorbs additional water to form feces within the colon (main section)
● Feces are held in rectum until elimination
● Human colon contains microorganisms that digest cellulose
● Appendix emerges from the cecum ; appendix is considered a vestigial organ, yet houses
microorganism that can help re-colonize the colon after diarrhea

Ruminant Stomach
● 4 chambered stomach for cellulose digestion
● Harvests energy from cellulose due to anatomical structures & symbiotic relationships w/
bacteria and protists
● Processed food enters the omasum where water & minerals are absorbed
● Abomasum contains pepsin & other digestive enzymes

Modified Esophagus: Bird Crop
● Birds have a widened esophagus section (​crop​) for food storage and some processing
● Leaf-eating birds have enlarged crops w/ bacteria for the breakdown of cellulose
● Avian gizzard​ is a modified stomach, which lodges small objects that act as muscle
contractions



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