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Module 8
...
periosteum of one bone is
continuous with the periosteum of the other
...
In adults may ossify completely = synostosis
...






- brous joints: syndesmoses






-bones farther apart than suture and joined by ligaments
...
Exs
...
[only found in teeth] Pegs that t into
sockets
...
In ammations: gingivitis leads to periodontal disease
...
[gives more exibility
...
Costochondral joint — develop
into synovial joints




-little or no movement




-some are temporary and are replaced by synostoses




-exs
...
Symphysis pubis, b/t manubrium sternum and body of sternum,
intervertebral disks


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Lecture 3 - synovial joints


-contain synovial uid


-allow considerable movement


-most joints that unite bones of appendicular skeleton re ecting greater mobility of appendicular skeleton compared to axial


-complex


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Anatomy and Physiology 1 - Part 2 of course 2021


-articular cartilage (on end of long bones): hyaline ; provides smooth surface


-joint cavity: synovial; encloses articular surfaces


-capsule - help support joint



- brous capsule: dense irregular CT, continuous w/ brous layer of the periosteum
...
Thin, delicate
...
Hyaluronic
acid- slippery


-no blood vessels or nerves in articular cartilages; nutrients from nearby blood vessels
and synovial uid
...

Found in areas of friction i
...
elbow




-bursitis - in ammation of bursa



-ligaments (bone to bone) and tendons (muscle to bone): stabilization



-articular discs: temperomandibular, sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular



-menisci: brocartilaginous pads in the knee



-tendon sheaths: synovial sacs that surround tendons as they pass near or over
bone


-types of synovial joints



-uniaxial: occurring around 1 axis



-biaxial: occurring around 2 axes at right angles to each other



-multiaxial: occurring around several axes

Lecture 4 - types of synovial joints

**see table 8
...
Intervertebral ,intercarpal, acromioclavicular, carpotetacarpal, costovertebral,
intertarsal, sacroilliac, tarsometatarsal


-saddle joints: biaxial



ex
...
Convex cylinder in 1 bone : corresponding concavity in the other



ex
...
Cylindrical bony process rotating within a circle of bone and ligament
...
Articulation b/t dens of axis and atlas (atlantoaxial) , proximal radioulnar, distal radioulnar


-ball-and-socket joints: multiaxial



exs
...
modi ed ball and socket; articular surfaces are ellipsoid



ex
...
Head looking up at sky




-plantar (come up on toes) and dorsi exion (top of foot exed up/back
on heels)



-abduction (take away from midline) and adduction (bring back to midline)


-circular:



-rotation



-pronation and supination



-circumduction

Lecture 6 - circular and special movements


-Rotation: turning of a structure on its long axis



ex
...
Rotation of the arm




-aka internal and external


-pronation/supination: refer to unique rotation of the forearm


-pronation: palm faces posteriorly



-supination : palm faces anteriorly








-circular movement


-circumduction:combo of exion, extension, abduction, adduction


-appendage describes/makes a cone


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-special movements



-unique to only 1 or two joints




-types:





-elevation and depression






-elevation: moves structure superior






-depression: moves structure inferior






ex
...
Scapula





-excursion






-lateral: moving mandible to right or left of midline






-medial: return the mandible to the midline






ex
...
Shape of articular surfaces forming joint


2
...
Strength and location of ligaments and tendons
...
Location of muscles assoc w/ joint
...
Amt of uid in and around joint
...
Amt of pain in and around joint
...
Amt of use/disuse of joint
...
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) — b/t mandible [only freely movable joint in skull]and
temporal bone


-combination plane and ellipsoid joint


- brocartilage disk divides joint into superior and inferior cavities


-allows depression/elevation, excursion, protraction/retraction


-TMJ disorders: cause of most chronic orofacial pain

ex
...
Elbow Joint [humerus ts into deep olecranon fossa = stable joint bc t of bones]


-compound hinge joint



-humeroulnar joint



-humeroradial joint



-proximal radioulnar joint


-shape of trochlear notch and trochlea limit movement to extension and exion


-rounded head of radius allows pronation and supination


[need big fore/injury for hyperextension]


-ligaments:



-ulnar collateral ligament



-radial collateral ligament



-radial annular ligament


-subacromial bursa

Lecture 8 - hip and knee joints

-Hip (coxal) joint


-ball and socket w/acetabulum deepened by brocartilage acetabular labrum and
transverse acetabular ligament


-more stable BUT less mobile than shoulder joint


- exion/extension, abduction/aduction, rotation, circumdauction


-extremely strong joint capsule reinforced by ligaments including the iliofemoral ligament that bears much of the body weight while standing


-ligament of head of femur (round ligament of femur); often bears nutrient artery


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-knee joint [Joint relies on ligaments ,tendons and muscles assoc to give it stability]



-condyloid: allowing exion/extension , small amt of rotation


-Menisci: brocartilage articular disks that build up margins of the tibia and deepen articular surface


-cruciate ligaments: extend between intercondylar eminence of tibia and fossa of the
femur



-anterior cruciate ligament (ACL): prevents anterior displacement of tibia



-posterior cruciate ligament (PCL): prevents posterior displacement of tibia


-collateral and popliteal ligaments: along w/tendons of thigh muscles strengthen the
joint


-Bursae: may result in slow accumulation of uid in the joint (water on the knee)


*knee injuries and disorder:



-football injuries - often tear the tibial collateral ligament , the anterior cruciate
ligament , and damage the medial meniscus



-bursitis



-chondromalacia - softening of cartilage due to abnormal movement of patella
or to accumulation of uid in fat pad posterior to patella



-hemarthrosis -accumulation of blood in joint

Lecture 9 - e ects of aging, joint disorders

E ects of aging on joints:

-tissue repair slows, rate of new blood vessel development decreases

-articular cartilage wears down and matrix becomes more rigid

-production of synovial uid declines

-ligaments and tendons become shorter and less exible; decrease in ROM

-muscles around joints weaken

-decrease in activity causes less exibility and decreased ROM

Joint disorders:

-arthritis : in ammation of joint


-osteoarthritis: wear and tear, stress related


-rheumatoid: caused by transient infection or autoimmune disease
...


-joint infections: lyme disease (w/tick as vector), suppurative arthritis
...
Increase in uric acid in blood results in deposition of monosodium rate crystals in joints and kidneys

-hallux valgus and bunion: Caused by ill- tting shoes

-joint replacement: prosthetic joint used to eliminate excruciating pain, usually due to arthritis

Module 9

Lecture 1 - Muscular System, functions and properties

Functions of muscular system:


-movement of body


-maintenance of posture



-Respiration


-production of body heat [during muscle contraction, help maintain body temp]


-communication [mandible muscles, tongue movement]


-constriction of organs and vessels [esophagus contracts and relaxes to propel food
down to stomach]


-contraction of the heart


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General properties of muscle:



-contractility: ability of muscle to shorten w/force [epithelial, nervous, connective can’t
do]


-excitability: capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus (from our nerves)


-extensibility: muscle can be stretched to its normal resting length and beyond to a limited degree


-elasticity: ability of muscle to recoil to original resting length after stretched


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Lecture 2 - muscle types, connective tissue coverings

Types of muscle tissue: **see table 9
...
1mm - 4cm in length




-develop from myoblasts; numbers remain constant




-striated appearance due to light and dark banding


-smooth:



-walls of hollow organs , blood vessels, eyes, glands, skin



-functions: propel urine, mix food in digestive tract, dilating/constricting pupils,
regulating blood ow



-in some locations, autorhythmic



-controlled involuntarily by endocrine and autonomic nervous systems



-single central nucleus


-cardiac:



-heart: major source of movement of blood



-authorhythmic



-controlled involuntarily by endocrine and autonomic nervous systems



-single central nucleus


-connective tissue



-covering of muscle:




-layers:





-epimysium: CT that surrounds a whole muscle (many fascicles)





-perimysium: Denser CT surrounding a group of muscle bers
...




-composed of G actin monomers each of which has an active site



-actin site can bind myosin during muscle contraction



-tropomyosin: an elongated protein winds along groove of F actin double helix


-troponin is composed of 3 subunits:



-one that binds to actin



-one that binds to tropomyosin



-one that bind to Calcium ions

Myosin (thick) myo lament


-many elongated myosin molecules shaped like golf clubs


-molecule consists of myosin heavy chains wound together to form a rod portion lying
parallel to the myosin myo lament and 2 heads that extend laterally


-myosin heads:



1
...
Attached to rod portion by hinge region that can bend and straighten during
contraction



3
...
Part of
the energy is used to bend the hinge regions of the myosin molecule during contraction

Sarcomeres: Z disk to Z disk


- sarcomere : basic functional unit of muscle ber


-Z disk: lamentous network of protein
...
[bc this is
area where have potential to have them come together - how much of a contraction will have]
{means it can contract}



-M line: middle of H zone; delicate laments holding myosin in place

*In muscle bers, A and I bands of parallel myo brils are aligned *

*Titis laments: elastic chains of amino acids; make muscles extensible and elastic


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Lecture 4 - Sliding Filament Theory, Physiology

Sliding lament model

-actin myo laments sliding over myosin to shorten sarcomeres


-actin and myosin do NOT change length


-Shortening SARCOMERES responsible for skeletal muscle contraction


-during relaxation , sarcomeres lengthen bc of some external force, like contraction of antagonistic muscles


-muscles that produce the opposite e ect

Physiology of skeletal muscle bers

-In resting membrane: inside of nerve or muscle cell is neg (large negatively charged proteins
stay there), outside of cell is pos; Na+ and K+ can move in and out - dictate charge

*Resting : -85mV

-Nervous system controls muscle contraction thru action potentials

-Resting membrane potentials

-membrane voltage di erence across membranes (polarized)

-inside cell more negative due to accumulation of large protein molecules
...
K+ leaks out but not completely bc negative proteins hold some back

-outside cell more positive and more Na+ on outside than inside


-Na+/K+ pump maintain this situation
...
Receptor: protein or
glycoprotein w/receptor site
...
Neurotransmitters


*gate is closed until neurotransmitter attaches to receptor molecule
...
Na+ moves into cell due to concentration gradient



-voltage gated: open and close in response to small voltage changes across
plasma membrane

Action potentials


-Phases:



-depolarization: inside of plasma membrane becomes Less Negative {pos
charges coming in} [resting has negative inside and positive outside]
...
During depolarization , the
membrane potential drops lower than its original resting potential, then rebounds
...
Action potential does NOT move
along the membrane: new action potential at each successive location



-frequency: # of action potential produced per unit of time

Lecture 5 - action potentials, neuromuscular junction

Collaterals feed di parts of muscle ber so can individually stimulate sarcomeres

Synapse: axon terminal resting in an invagination of the sarcolemma (plasma membrane of
muscle ber)

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)


-presynaptic terminal: axon terminal w/synatpic vesicles


-synatpic cleft: space


-postsynaptic membrane or moto end-plate sarcolemma


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Function of NMJ:


-synaptic vesicles




-contain neurotransmitter: substance released from presynaptic membrane that
di uses across synaptic cleft and stimulates (or inhibits) the production of an action potential in
the postsynaptic membrane


-Acetylcholine (Ach): neurotransmitter/ligand


-Acetycholinesterase: a degrading enzyme in synaptic cleft
...
Requires energy


-Ca2+ moves away from troponin-tropomyosin complex


-complex re-established its position and blocks binding sites

Cross bridge movement

-Ca2+ released and binds to troponin -> tropomyosin moves and exposes sites ->
myosin(thick) in its head has stored ATP - can reach up and make contact w/actin (thin) = cross
bridge established

-power stroke : cross bridge connected and then move [actin slide over myosin via pull/cross
bridges]

-Actin moves and H-zone decreases —> for contraction

-Release the bridge w/ATP -> bridge broken —> lament slides back

Lecture 7 - Physiology , motor units and contractions

Physio of skeletal muscle:

-muscle twitch: muscle contraction in response to silumuls that causes AP in one or more
muscle bers

-Phases:


-Lag/latent [cross bridge created here]


-contraction [result of cross bridge=powerstroke]


-relaxation [Ca2+ taken out and brought back into sarcoplasmic reticulum, cross bridge
releases]

*see table 9
...
e
...
e
...
[multiple depolarizations]

-occurs in muscle rested for prolonged period

-each subsequent contraction is stronger than previous until all equal after few stimuli

-possible explanation: more and more Ca2+ remains in sarcoplasm and is not all taken up into
the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Stimulus frequency and whole muscle contraction:’

-as frqncy of AP increases, the frqncy of contraction increases

-incomplete tetanus: muscle bers partial rest between contraction

-Complete tetanus : no rest between contraction

-multiple wave summation: muscle tension increases as contraction frequency increase

Muscle length vs Tension

-active tension: force applied to an object to be lifted muscle contracts

-stretched muscle - not enough cross-bridging [pulled away actin so di cult to create cross
bridge = overstretch - can’t contract]

-crumpled muscle - myo laments crumpled, cross bridges can’t contract [not large enough Hzone]

-passive tension: tension applied to load when a muscle is stretched not stimulated [cause
actin and myosin to change position via passive movement not contraction i
...
massage]

**Total tension = active + passive**

Muscle contractions

-Isometric: no change in length but tension increases [causing cross bridges to happen but not
allowing power stroke which would change length]


-postural muscles of body

-Isotonic: change in length but tension constant


-concentric: overcomes opposing resistance and muscle shortens [ex arm exion]


-Eccentric: tension maintained but muscle lengthens [ex arm extension]

-Muscle tone: constant tension by muscles for long periods of time


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Lecture 8 - Fatigue, Energy Sources, Slow and Fast Fibers

-Muscle Fatigue: decreased capacity to work (contract) and reduced e ciency of performance


-types:



-psychological: depends on emotional state of individual



-muscular: results from ATP depletion



-synaptic: occurs in NMJ due to lack of Ach


Physiological contracture and Rigor Mortis

-physio contracture: state of fatigue where due to lack of ATP neither contraction nor relaxation
can occur

-Rigor Mortis: development of rigid muscles several hours after death
...
Rigor ends as tissues start to
deteriorate
...
Smaller in diameter, better blood supply
(more Oxygen), more mitochondria (make more ATP), more fatigue-resistant than fast twitch,
large amt of myoglobin [blood pigment of this type of muscle]


-Postural muscles, more in lower than upper limbs
...
White meat in chicken


-comes in oxidative (use oxygen) and glycolytic (use glucose, carbs) forms

-distribution of fast twitch and slow twitch:


-most muscles have both but varies muscle to muscle


-e ects of exercise: change in size of muscle bers



-hypertrophy: increases in muscle size (see in Type IIB)




-increase in myo brils




-increase in nuclei due to fusion of satellite cells




-increase in strength due to better coordination of muscles, increase in
production of metabolic enzymes, better circulation, less restriction by fat



-Atrophy: decrease in muscle size




-reverse except in severe situations where cells die

**see table 9
...
ex
...
ex
...
Deltoid

-straight/rectus muscle ex
...
Eye orbit , entrance of oral cavity


Other shapes:

Quadratus

Rhomboid

Fusiform /spindle-shaped

Trapezoid

Triangular/deltoid

Digastric muscle [2 bellies — used to move tongue]

Two headed bicep

**Muscles contract in direction of their bers!**

Nomenclature for Muscles:

-Muscles named according to:


1
...
Size: maximus, minimus, longus, brevis


3
...
orientation: rectus [straight line]


5
...
# of heads: biceps, triceps


7
...
Muscle contractions are a pull or force by relative positions of:



-Lever: rigid shaft or bone



-Fulcrum: pivot point or joint



-weight or resistance: (force of gravity either in the form of the weight of the
body parts or the weight of an object being lifted, pulled, or pushed)

Classes of Levers:


-Class I: fulcrum between force and weight
...
Seesaw; head movement at atlantooccipital joint


-Class II: weight in between fulcrum and pull
...
wheelbarrow, standing on toes;
metatarsophalangeal joint


-class III: most common
...
Person using shovel,
biceps brachii w/ elbow as fulcrum

Muscle anatomy: posterior views and anterior views


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Lecture 3 - muscles of facial expression and mastication

Muscles of facial expression


-cutaneous: origin and insertion in super cial fascia


-head and neck


-move skin; some act as sphincters (circular shape of muscle)


-exs
...
- elevate mandible [super cial]

-Temporalis - elevate mandible
...
[deep]

-Lateral pterygoid - depress mandible and moves it from side to side [deep]

*3 muscles to elevate bc gravity forces mandible down and want to close oral cavity and chew*

Lecture 4 - Muscles that move head, neck and vertebral column

Head and neck muscles:


- exion: muscles deep w/in the neck along the anterior margins of the vertebral bodies


-extension: posterior neck muscles attached to occipital bone


-rotation and abduction: lateral and posterior groups


-exs
...
Get exion

-splenius capitus -posterior muscle
...
[muscles go straight]




-lines alba in center




-covered by rectus sheath




-tendinous intersections divided muscle into sections [aponeuroses]




- exes vertebral column



-External Oblique muscle
...
[muscles go in oblique fashion]




- exes and rotates abdomen {di ber directions from external oblique}



-transversus abdominis [muscles go in transverse fashion]




-compresses abdominal wall


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-Pelvic Outlet:


-Levator ani - support pelvic viscera and provides sphincter like action in anal canal and
vagina



-coccygeus - support pelvic viscera and provides sphincter like action in anal canal and
vagina

Lecture 6 - Muscles that move pectoral girdle and arm

-Muscles for pectoral girdle:[all insertion on scapula]


-trapezius - pulls scapula medially


-rhomboid major
...
Swimmers muscle
...
[all have insertion at femur except for gracilis]


-Psoas major - ex thigh


-Iliacus - ex thigh [Psoas and Iliacus = synergistic = called Iliopsoas]


-gluteus maximus - extend thigh at hip


-gluteus medius - abducts and rotates thigh medially


-gluteus minimus - same as gluteus medius


-tensor fascia latae - abducts , exes and rotates thigh medially


-pectineus - adducts and exes thigh


-adductor longus - adducts, exes and rotates thigh laterally


-adductor Magnus [big belly muscle]- adducts, extends, and rotates thigh laterally


-gracilis - adducts thigh and exes leg at the knee [medial most muscle of thigh] {insertion at tibia}

Pull from posterior to anterior pt = ex ??

-Muscles that move the leg ( exion)


-Posterior: Hamstring Group:



-Biceps femoris - exes and rotates leg laterally and extend thigh; insertion tibia
and bula



-semitendinosus - ex and rotate leg medially and extend thigh; insertion tibia



-semimembranosous -[larger and atter] ex and rotate leg medially and extend
thigh; insertion tibia


-sartorious / the tailors muscle (cross leg over other and make #4 shape)— ex leg and
thigh, abduct and rotate thigh laterally; insertion tibia


-Anterior: Quadriceps Femoris Group (extension):



-Rectus femoris - extend leg at knee; insertion patellar tendon



-Vastus lateralis - extend leg at knee; insertion patellar tendon



-Vastus medialis - extend leg at knee; insertion patellar tendon



-Vastus intermedius - extend leg at knee; insertion patellar tendon


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Lecture 9 - muscles that move the foot


-Tibialis anterior - dorsi exion and inversion (turn sole medially) of foot


-Fibularis tertius - dorsi exion and eversion (turn sole laterally) of foot [synergist w/tibialis anterior]


-extensor digitorum longus - dorsi exion, eversion of foot and extension of toes


-gastrocnemeus - (2 headed muscle) , plantar exion; cross another joint - come from
femur to calcaneus —cross knee joint and tarsal region ; also exion of leg


-gastrocsoleus/Soleus - plantar exion


**gastro are 2 most powerful plantar muscles, work against gravity**


-tibialis posterior - plantar exion and inversion of foot


- exor digitorum longus - ex toes and plantar exion and inversion of foot


- bularis longus- plantar exion and eversion of foot {stronger of the everters/eversion}

Module 11

Lecture 1 - Nervous System Functions and Division

Nervous System Functions [chief regulator, other 10 systems don’t function well if at all without
it:


-receiving sensory input
...
Brain and spinal cord process sensory input an initiate responses

-controlling muscles and glands

-maintaining homeostasis
...
Consciousness, thinking, memory, emo-

Divisions of nervous system:


-components:



-brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors


-subdivisions:



-CNS: brain and spinal cord [axially placed]



-PNS: sensory receptors and nerves [lateral to CNS]

Lecture 2 - PNS and autonomic system

-PNS:


-sensory receptors: ending of neurons or separate, specialized cells that detect such
things as temp, pain, touch, pressure, light, sound, odors


-Nerve: bundle of axons and their sheaths that connects CNS to sensory receptors,
muscles , and glands



-cranial nerves: originate from brain; 12 pairs [axons coming o brain]



-spinal nerves: originate from spinal cord; 31 pairs [axons from spinal cord]


-ganglion: collection of neuron cell bodies outside CNS


-plexus: extensive network of axons, and sometimes neuron cell bodies, located outside CNS

-Division of PNS:


-sensory (a erent): transmits action potentials from receptors to CNS


-Motor (e erent): transmits action potentials from CNS to e ectors (muscles, glands)

-Motor Division of PNS:


-Somatic nervous system: from CNS to skeletal muscles



-voluntary



-single neuron system [dont need brain to acknowledge something]



-synapse: junction of a nerve cell with another cell
...
g
...
[ex
...
digestive, making urine]

Running from bear: *Receptor -> sensory NS (a erent) -> CNS -> Motor NS (e erent) ->E ector (muscles, lungs, heart stimualted)*


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Lecture 3- cells of the nervous system
...
Receive stimuli and transmit AP



-organization:


-Types of neurons:


-functional classi cation:





-sensory or a erent: APs toward CNS



-motor or e erent: APs away from CNS



-interneurons or association neurons: w/in CNS from 1 neuron to another


-structural classi cation:



-multipolar: most neurons in CNS; motor neurons; multiple folds come o cell
body/many dendrites



-bipolar: sensory in retina of eye and nose [input and output area]; has 1 dendrite o cell body



-unipolar: single process that divides into 2 branches
...
[function as a receiving and a motor end]; appears
to have an axon and no dendrites

Lecture 4 - cells of the nervous system
...
Lots of micro laments for support
...
Specialized versions of
ependymal form choroid plexuses
...
Secrete CSF
...
Have long processes on basal surface that extend w/in brain
tissue, may have astrocyte-like function





-Microglia and Oligodendrocytes:


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-cell body/Soma





-nucleus, Nissl substance =chromatophilic substance=rough ER:
primary site of protein synthesis




-Dendrites: receive input [multiple dendrites for one neuron]





-short, often highly branced





-dendritic spines: little protuberance where axons synapse w/
dendrite
...






-axon hillock:






-initial segmanet: beginning of axon






-trigger zone: site where APs are generated; axon hillock
and part of axon nearest cell body





-Axoplasm - carry nutrients and waste products w/in axon





-axolemma - cell membrane around axon





-presynaptic terminals (terminal boutons)





-synaptic vesicles - contain neurotransmitter




-Microglia: specialized macrophages
...
Single oligodendrocytes can form myelin sheaths around portions of SEVERAL AXONS
...
Wrap around many times
...
Cell membrane
primarily phospholipid
...
myelin protects and insulates axons from 1 another,
speeds transmission functions in repair of axons



-not continuous




-Nodes of Ranvier



-completion of development of myelin sheaths at 1 year old



-degeneration of myelin sheaths occurs in MS (hardening of myelin) and some
cases of diabetes mellitus


-unmyelinated axons: rest in invaginations of Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes
...
Integrative functions


-white matter: myelinated axons
...

Proteins are negatively charged



-Cl- are repelled by proteins and they exit thru always-open non gated Cl- channels


-gated ion channels open and close bc of some sort of stimulus
...

Ach

Lecture 6 - leak and voltage gated channels

-Leak channels
...
K+ are
higher concentration on inside than out so they move out


-always open and responsible for permeability when membrane at rest



-speci c for one type of ion although not absolute

-Gated ion channels


-gated ion channels open and close bc of some sort of stimulus
...
Ach binds to Ach receptor on a Na+ channel
...
Na+ enters cell
...
2*]

-Resting membrane potential:


-Na+, Cl- and Ca2+ do NOT have a great a ect on resting membrane potential since
they have very few leakage channels for these ions
...
For each ATP that is consumed, 3 Na
move out and 2 K+ moved in
...



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-Changing the resting membrane potential: K+


-depolarization: potential di erence becomes smaller or less polar
...
[*See table 11
...
4*]

-APs


-depolarization phase followed by repolarization phase



-depolarization: more Positive
...
A large enough graded potential may cause the membrane to reach threshold
(around -50mV)
...



-all or none principle
...
No matter how large stimulus, a second AP cannot be produced











-Relative [if strong enough, AP may occur bc in hyperopolarization]


-a stronger than threshold stimulus can initiate another AP


-Propagation of APs


-in an Unmyelinated axon


-threshold graded current at trigger zone causes AP


-AP in one sites causes AP at next location
...
“leep”


-speed of conduction



-faster in myelinated than in non-myelinated




-in myelinated axons, lipids act as insulation forcing ionic currents to
jump from node to node




-in myelinated, speed is a ected by thickness of myelin sheath




-diameter of axons: large diameter conduct more rapidly than small diameter
...
Condcut at 15-120m/s
...
[neurons that save your life]


-type B: medium-diameter , lightly myelinated
...
Part of ANS


-type C: small diameter, unmyelinated
...
Part of ANS
...
If enough Na+ di uses into postsynaptic cell, it res


-electrical synapses: [DIFF than muscle bc need nerve endings there BUT w//heart
have authorhythmicity — stimulate itself by connexon & gap junction]



-Gap junctions that allow graded current to ow b/t adjacent cells



-connexons: protein tubes in cell membrane



-found in cardiac muscle and many types of smooth muscle
...
Choline recycled w/in presynaptic neuron



-norepinephrine/adrenaline recycled w/in presynaptic neuron or di uses away
from synapse
...
Absorbed into circulation, broken down in liver
...
Synthesis of data in brain; hear bear, see bear running



-divergent pathways: small # of presynaptic neurons synapse with large # of
postsynaptic neurons




ex
...
When repeat something to remember it esp
...
Directions: going to turn left then right then look for stop sign
{short term memory}





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Module 12

Lecture 1 - spinal cord intro and regions

-spinal cord [CNS]


-extends from foramen magnum to second lumbar vertebrae


-segmented



-cervical



-thoracic



-lumbar



-sacral


Lecture 2 - Meninges and Cross Sectional Anatomy

-meninges of spinal cord:


-connectective tissue membranes surrounding spinal cord and brain



-dura mater:most super cial
...
Bound tightly to surface of brain and spinal cord
...



-spaces:



-epidural: anesthesia injected
...
Contains blood vessels,
areolar CT and fat



-subdural: serous uid



-subarachnoid space: CSF and blood vessels w/in web-like strands of arachnoid tissue


*gray matter on inside, white matter on outside of it*

[Central canal - contain CSF that comes down from brain

Gray and white commissures- bridge 2 sides

gray: horns: lateral, anterior , posterior

white: columns: dorsal, ventral, lateral - areas of nerve pathways ]

-cross section of spinal cord:


-anterior median ssure and posterior median sulcus: deep clefts partially separating
left and right halves


-white matter: myelinated axons forming tracts



-3 columns (funiculi) : ventral, dorsal, lateral




-each of these divided into tracts (fasiculi; pathways)


-gray matter: neuron, cell , cell bodies, dendrites, axons



-horns: posterior (dorsal)= sensory/a erent




anterior (ventral) =motor/e erent




Lateral (associated w/ANS)

Lecture 3 - organization of neurons and re ex arc

-Dorsal root ganglion (bundle of cell bodies in PNS, interprets): [anterior view of spinal cord bc
deep ssure] collection of cell bodies of unipolar sensory neurons forming dorsal roots

-motor neuron cell bodies are in anterior and lateral horns of spinal cord gray matter


-multipolar somatic motor neurons in anterior (motor_ horn


-autonomic neurons in lateral horn

-axons of motor neurons form ventral roots and pass into spinal nerves


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-Re exes: basic functional unit of nervous system and simplest portion capable of receiving a
stimulus and producing a response


-automatic response to a stimulus that occurs w/o conscious thought
...
To interneurons/association neuron [further interprets what’s going on, synapses on motor neuron]
...
To e ector organ which responds with a re ex

**sometimes don’t need interneuron; have sensory neuron synapsing on motor neuron**

-variety of re exes:


-some integrated w/in spinal cord, some w/in brain


-some involve excitatory neurons yielding a response; some involved inhibitory neurons
that prevent an action
...
excite muscle to ex forearm and inhibit muscles that extend it]


-higher brain centers can in uence, suppress, or exaggerate re ex responses



*brain can override re ex**

Lecture 4 - Major types of re exes

-stretch re ex: [no interneuon]


-muscles contract in response to a stretching force applied to them
...
Control sensitivity of muscle spindle
...




-also involved in stretch re ex


-crosses extensor re ex: when a withdrawal re ex is initiated in 1 lower limb, the
crossed extensor re ex causes extension of opposite lower limb [ex
...
g
...
vertebrae]


-8 pair cervical (c1-C8), 12 pair thoracic(T-T12), 5 pair lumbar(L1-L5), 5 pair sacral(S1S5), 1 pair coccygeal (Co)

Lecture 6 - Dermatones and nerve plexus

-branches of spinal nerves [part of PNS, mix of a erent and e erent, come thru dorsal portion
and come out thru ventral portion]
...
1*]

*Cranial nerves are a part of PNS, come o brains stem

-Brain


-part of CNS contained in cranial cavity


-control center for many of body’s functions


-much like a complex computer but more


-parts of the brain:



-brainstem: connects spinal cord to brain; integration of re exes necessary for
survival



-cerebellum: involved in control of locomotion, balance, posture



-diencephalon: thalamus , subthalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus



-cerebrum: conscious thought, control


-cranial nerves: part of PNS arise directly from brain
...
Inferiorly bers decussate
(cross over); thus each half of the brain controls the opposite half of the body
...
Nuclei within help regulate balance,
coordination, modulation of sound from inner ear


-nuclei of cranial nerves V, IX-XII

-Brainstem: Pons


-superior to medulla oblongata


- ber tracts: ascending and descending


-Nuclei



-pontine: anterior portion, relay between cerebrum and cerebellum


-for cranial nerves V-IX: posterior portion



-sleep center



-respiratory center coordinates with center in medulla

-Brainstem: Midbrain AKA mesencephalon


-small and superior to pons


-nuclei of cranial nerves III-V


-tectum: 4 nuclei that form mounds on dorsal surface of midbrain
...
Colliculi , eyes, skin, cerebrum




-2 inferior colliculi involved in hearing re exes


-red nuclei of tegmentum: aid in unconscious regulation and coordination of motor activities


-substantia nigra: pigmented w/melanin; interconnected w/basal nuclei of cerebrum


-Tracts:



-tegmentum: ascending tracts such as spinal and medial lemniscus from spinal
cord to brain



-Descending: cerebral peduncles from cerebrum through brainstem to spinal
cord

Lecture 3 - the reticular formation and cerebellum

-reticular formation:


-group of nuclei scattered throughout brainstem


-controls cyclic activities such as sleep-wake cycle


-circadian rhythms


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-cerebellum



-attached to brainstem posterior to pons


-cerebellar peduncles: ber tracts that communicate w/other parts of brain



-superior: info to midbrain



-middle: to pons



-inferior: to medulla oblongata


-gray cortex and nuclei w/white matter (tracts)[myelinated axons-fast moving APs bc
involved in balance] between


-cortex folded in ridges called folia; white matter resembles a tree (arbor vitae)


-cerebellar functions:



-balance and eye movements



-posture, locomotion, ne motor coordination leading to smooth, owing movements



-major portion : works w/cerebrum to plan, practice, learn complex movements






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Lecture 4 - diencephalon, thalamus and hypothalamus

**groups of cell bodies in CNS are nuclei*

-Diencephalon:


-b/t brainstem and cerebrum


-components:



-thalamus:[2 nuclei] sensory integration [exception: olfaction/smell—goes directly into brain]




-2 lateral portions connected by intermediate mass/interthalamic adhesion




-surrounded by 3rd ventricle




-sensory info from spinal cord synapses here before projecting to cerebrum:





-auditory info





-visual info





-most other types sensory info (temp, vibration etc)





-Olfactory info (smell) DOES NOT GO THROUGH THALAMUS




-motor function: ventral anterior and ventral lateral nuclei
...
Limbic system




-sensory integration: lateral posterior and pulvinar nucela
...
3**




-most inferior portion of diencephalon




-mamillary bodies: bulges on ventral surface; olfactory re exes and emotional responses to odors




-infundibulum: stalk extending from oor; connects hypothalamus to
posterior pituitary gland
...





-receives input from viscera/organs, taste receptors, limbic system, external genitalia, prefrontal cortex




-e erent/motor bers to brainstem, spinal cord (ANS), thru infundibulum
to posterior pituitary, and to cranial nerves controlling swallowing and shivering




-Imp in regulation of mood, emotion, sexual pleasure, rage, fear, satiation



-subthalamus: nerve tracts and nuclei



-epithalamus: pineal gland ; superior aspect of diencephalon


Lecture 5 - the cerebrum

-cerebrum


-largest portion of the brain


-composed of right and left hemispheres each of which has the following lobes: frontal,
parietal, occipital, temporal, insult


-sulci (shallow depression) and ssures (deep depression):



-longitudinal ssures: separate the 2 hemispheres



-lateral ssure: separate temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes



-central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobes


-cortex: outer surface
...



-insula: is within [deep-cant be seen super cially]
...
Facial recognition, understanding, 3D relationships

Left hemisphere: analytical
...
Connected to third ventricle by
the cerebral aqueduct , continuous with spinal cord and connected to the subarachnoid space
by the lateral and medial apertures

**CSF wash down , around and out and encircle brain, and spinal cord**




Lecture 7 - CSF and blood supply to brain

-CSF


-similar to serum, but most protein removed


-bathes brain and spinal cord


-protective cushions around CNS


-choroid plexuses produce CSF which lls ventricles and other part of brain and spinal
cord



-composed of Ependymal cells, their support tissue, and associated blood vessels


-blood-cerebrospinal uid barrier:



-endothelial cells of capillaries attached by tight junctions



-substances do NOT pass b/t cells



-substances must pass thru cells



-makes the barrier very selective


-Flow of CSF: CSF made in ventricles > moves out and around brain > moves down
spinal cord

-blood supply to the brain:


-brain requires a tremendous amt of blood (for oxygen etc)


-receives 15-20% of blood pumped by heart [can be more than that during stress,
heavy mental concentration]


-interruption can cause unconsciousness and irreversible Brain damage


-high metabolic rate dependent upon constant supply of oxygen and glucose


-receives blood thru arteries: internal carotids (more medial) and vertebral arteries
...
Carotids plus basilar form the cerebral arterial
circle (circle of Willis)


-Blood Brain Barrier:



-capillary endothelial cells along with astrocytes and basement membrane



-to be considered when developing drugs



-endothelial cells (lining all capillaries) have tight junctions b/t them



-astrocytes have foot processes that in uence capillary permeability



-basement membrane of endothelium



-these 3 characteristics determine permeability:




-lipid-soluble substances pass thru by di usion: i
...
nicotine, ethanol
...
Amino
acids, glucose


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Lecture 8 - cranial nerves

-cranial nerves: **see table 13
...
(12):


-I = olfactory
...
— bring visual stimuli back to brain


-III = oculomotor
...
Sensory: to scalp/forehead/upper eyelid/cornea, palate/upper
teeth/upper jaw/upper gums; sensory and motor: lower jaw/lower teeth/lower gum - move lower jaw/mastication , proprioception


-VI = abducens
...
sensory : sense of taste; motor: muscles of facial expression , proprioception


-VIII = (acoustic) vestibulocochlear
...
Sensory: for taste; motor: pharyngeal muscles imp for swallowing; parasympathetic nervous system


-X = vagus
...
motor: controls SCM and trapezius


-XII =hypoglossal

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