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Subject: Anatomy
Organization of the Body
Morphology – study of parts and structure as it relates to function (physiology)
*function of a structure can often be determined by its design
Cells – basic living unit of the body
Intracellular fluid
-Potassium, magnesium, phosphate ions
Extracellular fluid (Internal environment)
-where the ions and nutrients needed by the cells to maintain life are found thus
forming the environment where all cells live =internal environment
-Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions, nutrients (oxygen, glucose, fatty acids and amino
acids)
Tissue – group of cells found throughout the body and serve the same function
Four basic classification of tissues: (ENCM)
•
•
•
•

Epithelial tissue
Nervous tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue

Epithelial Tissue
• Functions: protection for the outer surface of the body and lines internal cavities and
passageways, and forms certain glands
• Found in the body in 2 forms:
o Membranous
▪ Outer layer of skin
▪ Inner lining of body cavities and lumina
▪ Covering of visceral organs
o Glandular
▪ Secretory portion of glands
Nervous Tissue
•
•

Function: Helps coordinate movements via a complex motor control system
2 Main classes of cells:
o Neuron – conducting cells
▪ 3 main parts:
• Cell Body – contains the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus
• Dendrites – receives input from other neurons

•
•

• Axon – transmits electrical signals traveling away from the cell
o Neuroglia (Glial cells) – supports the neurons
Excitable
Peripheral nerves

Connective Tissue
•
•
•

•

•

•

•
•

Function: Provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs of the body
Found throughout the body
Includes:
o Bones
o Cartilage
o Ligaments
o Tendons
o Blood Tissue
Primary types:
o Macrophages – function as phagocytes to clean up debris
o Mast cells - release chemicals associated with inflammation
o Fibroblasts- principal cells of connective tissue
Primary types are differentiated according to the extracellular matrix that binds the cells:
o embryonic connective tissue
o connective tissue proper
o cartilage and bone tissue
o blood tissue
Classified further into:
o loose connective tissue
o dense, regular connective tissue
o dense, irregular connective tissue
o elastic connective tissue
o reticular connective tissue
▪ lymph nodes, red bone marrow, thymus, and spleen
...

TYPE
I
II
III

LOCATION
Bone, skin, ligament and tendon
Cartilage, nucleus pulposus
Blood vessels, GI tract

IV

Basement membrane

▪

➢

➢
➢

➢

Elastin- elasticity
• a protein that provides elastic properties to tissues or organs
• skin, lungs, blood vessels and connective tissues
▪ Arrangement of elastin and collagen
-sparse in loose connective tissue but are tightly packed in dense
connective tissue
Examples of connective tissue
❖ Fascia- loose connective tissue
❖ Tendons and ligaments- dense, regular connective tissue
Fascia – provides support and protection to joint; acts as an interconnection between tendons,
aponeuroses, ligaments, capsules, nerves and muscles
Tendons- consists largely of high tensile strength collagen
- cordlike structures that functions to:
❖ Attach muscle to bone
❖ To transmit the forces generated by muscles to bone
Ligaments - Fibrous bands of dense connective tissue that connects bones across joints
-prevents excessive motion
-acts as guides to direct motion
-provides proprioceptive information

➢ Bone- living tissue capable of changing its structure as the result of stresses to which it is subjected
❖ 2 Forms:
▪ Compact – solid mass
▪ Cancellous – consists of a branching network of trabeculae
❖ Regional Classification
Regional classification of Bones
Region of Skeleton
Number of Bones
Axial Skeleton
Skull
8
• Cranium
14
• Face
6
• Auditory ossicles
Hyoid
1
Vertebrae (including sacrum and coccyx)
26
Sternum
1
Ribs
24
Appendicular Skeleton
Shoulder girdles
2
• Clavicle
2
• Scapula
Upper extremities
Humerus
2

Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Pelvic Girdle
Hip Bone
Lower Extremities
Femur
Patella
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Total bones in the human body:

2
2
16
10
28
2
2
2
2
2
14
10
28
206

❖ Classification Based on Shape
▪ Long Bones – found on the limbs; length is greater than width
o Parts of Long Bones
▪ Diaphysis – tubular shaft
▪ Epiphysis – present at each end
▪ Epiphyseal plate / epiphyseal cartilage – made up of hyaline
cartilage; where bone growth occurs during the growing
years
▪ Metaphysis- adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilage
▪ Marrow Cavity- contains the bone marrow
▪ Short bones – found in the hand and foot; cuboidal in shape;
▪ Flat bones – found in the vault of the skull
▪ Irregular bones – include the bone that are not included in the previous
classifications
▪ Sesamoid bones – small nodules of bone that are located in some tendons where
they rub over bony surfaces; largest sesamoid bone is the patella
➢ Joints – regions where bones are capped and surrounded by connective tissues that hold the bones
together and determine the type and degree of movement between them; site where two or more
bones meet
❖ Fibrous Joint- very little movement is possible
▪ Sutures of the vault of the skull
▪ Inferior tibiofibular joint
❖ Cartilaginous Joint▪ Primary - bones are united by a plate or a bar of hyaline cartilage; No movement is
possible ;
▪ Secondary - bones are united by a plate of fibrocartilage and the articular surfaces
of the bones are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage; A small amount of
movement is possible

❖ Synovial Joints - articular surfaces of the bones are covered by a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage separated by a joint cavity ; great degree of freedom of movement is available
▪ Synovial membrane- lines the joint cavity
▪ Capsule- tough fibrous membrane that protects the synovial membrane
▪ Synovial Fluid- viscous fluid that lubricates the articular surfaces; produced by the
synovial membrane
▪ Articular discs- discs or wedges of fibrocartilage interposed between the articular
surfaces
▪ Fatty pads- between synovial membrane and the fibrous capsule or bone
❖ Classification according to the arrangement of articular surfaces and the types of movement
that are possible
▪ Plane Joints- articular surfaces are flat or almost flat and permits the bones to slide
on one another (e
...
, sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints)
▪ Hinge joints- like the hinge of a door ; flexion and extension movements are
possible (e
...
, elbow, knee and ankle joints)
▪ Pivot joints- a central bony pivot is surrounded by a bony ligamentous ring ; rotation
is the only movement possible (e
...
, atlantoaxial and superior radioulnar joints)
▪ Condyloid joints - two distinct convex surfaces that articulate with two concave
surfaces; flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction are possible together with a
small amount of rotation (e
...
, metacarpophalangeal joints)
▪ Ellipsoid joints - an elliptical convex articular surface fits into an elliptical concave
articular surface; flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction can take place, but
rotation is impossible (e
...
, wrist joint)
▪ Saddle Joints - articular surfaces are reciprocally concavoconvex and resemble a
saddle; flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation (e
...
,
carpometacarpal joint of the thumb)
▪ Ball-and-socket joints - a ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a socket like
concavity of another; permits free movements, including flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction (e
...
,
shoulder and hip joints)
❖ Factors for joint stability:
▪ Articular surfaces – depends on shape, size and arrangement
▪ Ligaments
o Fibrous ligaments- prevents excessive movement in a joint
o Elastic ligaments- return to their original length after stretching
▪ Muscle tone
➢ Bursae - A closed sack line with a film of viscous fluid and acts as a lubricating device to diminish
friction and allow free movement over body eminence, between tendons and when tendons are
applied to bone
➢ Aponeurosis - sheets of interlacing fibers found at the ends of musclebroad, flat membranous s
attaching these to bone
...


Nerve Supply of Muscle – mixed (60% motor ; 40% sensory) ; also contains some
sympathetic autonomic fibers
•

•

Smooth muscle - long, spindle-shaped cells closely arranged in bundles or sheets
- smooth muscle fibers may be made to contract by local stretching of the fibers, by
nerve impulses from autonomic nerves, or by hormonal stimulation
Cardiac muscle- striated muscle fibers that branch and unite with each other
- Forms the myocardium of the heart
- Produces spontaneous and rhythmic contraction
- supplied by autonomic nerve fibers that terminate in the nodes of the conducting
system and in the myocardium

ORGAN/ORGAN SYSTEMS
1
...
AXIAL Skeleton
ii
...
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
▪ Movement
▪ Circulation of blood
▪ Passage of food
▪ Respiration
▪ Attachments: Origin and insertion
3
...
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
▪ Control of bodily states by hormones
▪ Glands
5
...
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
▪ Drains and filters tissue fluid
▪ Components: lymph nodes, lymph, lymph vessels
7
...
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Digestion, absorption, elimination
▪ Components
i
...
Accessory glands (salivary, liver, gall bladder, pancreas)
9
...
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Formation of new member of the species

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COMMON TERMINOLOGY
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Head = caput= capitis = cephalon

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Neck = cervical = nuchae, nuchal

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Chest = thorax

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Shoulder girdle = pectoral girdle

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Arm = brachium

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Forearm = antebrachium

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Wrist = carpus

▪

Hand = manus

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Thumb = pollex

▪

Coxa = hip = innominate

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Buttocks = gluteal region

▪

Thigh = femoral

▪

Knee = genu

▪

Popliteal = behind the knee

▪

Leg = crus

▪

Ankle = tarsus

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Foot = pes



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