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Memory
MULTI-STORE MODEL
This model was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin
...
They suggested that information travels in a
‘FIXED SEQUENCE’
...
Attention is required for information to be transferred from the sensory store into STM
...
In contrast LTM has an unlimited
capacity, has an indefinite duration (e
...
a memory could last a few minutes or a life time) and finally it
encodes information semantically (via meaning)
...
Forgetting can occur at any one stage
...

• After intervals of 3,
6, 9, 12, 15 or 18
seconds, P’s were
asked to recall the
trigram
...
R
needed to stop info
vanishing and that info in
STM fades away if
rehearsal is prevented

☺ High level of control
(as lab) so less
distractions
☺ Issue of ID
eliminated as RMD
used
 Trigrams not real so
do not reflect
well no generalisation
 Order effects as P’s
get better/bored

Bahrick et al
(LTM
duration)

• 392 HS grads tested
over 50 years
• Photo re, name to
photo, free recall

• Good up to 34
years (90%) better
on re than free
recall
• Decline after 47
years

Some information can be
remembered for a
lifetime and LTM
appears to be measured
better on recognition
tests than free recall
tests

StudyWise: A-Level Psychology Revision

☺ Meaningful material
so reflects on real life
so generalisation
 Issue of ID (some
Ps’ naturally better
memory)

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Baddeley
(STM & LTM
encoding)

• STM: P’s asked to
recall immediately in
order list of 5 words
taken from word pool
• LTM: Same except
20 mins interval time
and 10 words
1)
Acoustically
similar
2)
Acoustically
dissimilar
3)
Semantically
similar
4)
Semantically
dissimilar

• STM:
Acoustically similar
words were harder
to
recall
then
dissimilar words
• LTM:
Semantically
similar
words
harder to recall
than
dissimilar
words

STM relies heavily on
acoustic coding while
LTM relies heavily on
semantic coding

Evaluation of Multi-store model
☺ PRIMACY RECENCY EFFECT
The tendency for people to remember the first set of words in a list supports the Multi-store model, as
the first set of words are likely to have been transferred into the LTM as they would have been
rehearsed
...
This again supports the idea that there distinct stores within
Memory
...
For instance it has been found that when people
use their STM their Pre-Frontal cortex is active
...
This highlights that there are indeed ‘different components’ to our memory just as suggested
by Atkinson and Shiffrin
...
was no longer able to make new
Long term memories
...

 REHEARSAL
There is also the debate about whether rehearsal is as important as Atkinson suggested
...
Such as flash bulb memories, which suggest that when emotions are attached we are
more likely to remember the event?

 WORKING MEMORY MODEL (MSM IS SIMPLIFIED)

Baddeley and Hitch argued that the Multi-store model was too simplified and suggested that the
STM consisted of sub-parts as opposed to being a unitary system
...
F
...


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WORKING MEMORY MODEL
This model was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch
...
The central executive is thought to be
the main component which is in control of the other two parts as well as dealing with higher order tasks (e
...

problem solving tasks)
...
Finally the Visuo-spatial sketchpad (inner eye) deals with visual and
spatial information
...
One group had to follow a pointer on a
board (visual task) whilst answering questions about the angles of different letters (another visual task)
...
The second group performed better than the first group as the tasks required them to use
different components of the STM – the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and Phonological loop
...
This provides evidence that there is more than one component in STM
...
This again supports the idea that there are different sub-parts
to STM which work independently of each other
...


MULTI-STORE MODEL
However the working memory model is limited in that it only considers STM and ignores LTM which the Multistore model had at least considered
...


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EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
This term refers to instances where a witness of a crime has to give a statement in court in relation to
what they had seen
...

In her experiment she got 45 psychology students to watch a number of video clips of traffic accidents
...
There was one
critical question (leading) – ‘What speed were the cars travelling in when they smashed into each other’
...

The results showed that participants in the ‘smashed’ group gave the highest estimates of 41mph
...

This shows that the wording of a question can have a significant effect on one’s recall
...


Evaluation of Loftus’ key study on MISLEADING QUESTIONS
☺ DID YOU SEE THE BROKEN GLASS
Loftus carried out her above study again but this time added an additional leading question in which she
asked participants ‘did you see the broken glass’
...
Thus
supporting Loftus’ claim
...
A
major flaw is that Loftus’ study lacks ecological validity
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Cutshall interviewed 13 people who had witnessed an armed robbery in Canada
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Despite these Q’s the witnesses
provided accurate recall that matched their initial reports
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Christianson interviewed 110 witnesses to bank robberies
...


 SIGNIFICANT VERSUS INSIGNIFICANT
Also there is the issue of insignificant versus significant details
...
Afterwards
98% of the participants identified the colour correctly
...
Again showing that
misleading questions might not distort someone’s memory
...
A man with greasy hands and a pen
came out
...
A man
with a bloody knife came out
...
Loftus believed anxiety from seeing
a weapon narrowed the focus of attention from the face
...

•

Children questioned about demonstration and found they had incorporated much of new info
...
Children then asked to think where they got the information from (source
monitoring)
•

Older children able to revise their answers and extract post-event info (story) while younger

children were not able to
This implies that children cannot be relied upon for EWT
CHILDREN: Flin et al

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•

Questioned children and adults a day after incident and 5 months after
...
When there was a short delay (35mins)

•

between incident and interview, no difference in accuracy
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Consequentiality
Most EWT studies had been carried out in lab conditions
...

FOSTER et al
•

P’s watched a vid of bank robbery and asked by police to identify robbers in identity parade
...
Other 50% were led to believe it
was a film situation only
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The Cognitive Interview
Fisher’s view on the standard (police) interview:
•

Studied real police interviews for 4 months

•

Found witnesses were bombarded with brief, close-ended, direction questions

•

Not allowed to freely talk, interrupted often and sequence of Q were out of sync with event

Fisher felt this was unhelpful as it broke the concentration of witnesses and encouraged short, less
detailed answers
...
e
...
e
...
Report everything

The witness encourages the reporting of every
single detail of the event, even though it may
seem irrelevant
...
Context Reinstatement

The interviewer encourages the interviewee to
mentally recreate the environment and contacts
from the original incident

3
...
g
...

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4
...
g
...


Evaluation of the Cognitive Interview
Geiselman et al showed P’s video of simulated crime then tested different groups with a CI, SI and
interview under hypnosis
...
This shows that CI are
most effective when invterviewing witnesses
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They had a concern over the amount of incorrectly recalled info and the time it took to
carry it out
...
He
also found out it worked good for children aged 8+

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Strategies for improving memory

1) Role of organisation
a
...
This involves taking a phrase in which the first letter of
each word represents a key concept or principle (i
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Never Eat Shredded Wheat = NESW)
b
...
g
...
Each key location/destination represents a key
concept or principle, therefore when recalling, a person would use the route to aid recall
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e
...
g
...
One group given title “Washing Clothes”
other group not given a title
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3) Encoding and retrieval strategies
Encoding specificity principle – this term suggests you are more likely to recall something if the retrieval
context (where you recall something) is like the encoding context (where you learnt something)
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•

Some P’s asked to recall in same basement
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Some asked to
recall in room on 2nd floor but to imagine they were in basement
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5th floor P’s recalled on average 12/80
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4) The role of practice
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The case of SF was able to recall a list of 80 digits in order

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•

He practised 1 hour a day for 2 years but could not achieve the same with letters/words
...


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