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SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS ROBERT K MERTON
Merton is an American Sociologist, a one-time stUdent and faMOUS critic of Talcott Parsons
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Most of his writings have been in essay form
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He was a distingUished sociologist perhaps best known for
having coined the phrase "self-fUlfilling prophecy
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He was heavily inFLUenced
by Pitrim Sorokin who tried to balance large-scale theoriZing with a strong interest in empirical
research and statistical stUdies
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Merton launched a critique of Parson’s functional strategy or building sociological theory
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for Merton such grand theoretical schemes are
premature, since the theoretical and empirical ground work necessary for their completion had not been
performed
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According to Merton, Sociology, in the present state of its development, needs theories of the Middle
Range
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middle range theories are so formulated that specific and verifiable
hypothesis can be deduced from these theories and can be subjected to empirical verification
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Thus, the functional approach for Merton was primarily a method for sociological
research in order to build theories
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THEORIES OF THE MIDDLE RANGE:

Middle range theories of R
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his theory
advocates that theory building in sociology should not be governed by intellectual aggression or academic
speculation
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rather theories are developed in sociology to arrange the empirical facts in a consolidated manner
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the social theories should be coming out of facts to explain the
facts in a systematic manner
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during 1960s in America, political corruption, ethnic conflict, deviant behaviours was largely
manifested and Merton took interest in studying them and explained all the emergent conditions
using simply designed theoretical frameworks
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Merton critique on using natural science methods in social science: Non-Positivist
•

Merton is not comfortable with the use of natural science theories in the field of sociology (NonPositivist)
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It is possible on part of a natural scientist
to modify, amend or revise the theories of his predecessors applying such theories to contemporary
problems and issues
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•

In the field of sociology, the form of capitalism, patterns of democracy, role of family as a group
keeps changing in time and space
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Sociology
must have to go for middle range theories than striving for scientific status extending natural science
theories into the field of sociological research

Postulates of functional analysis: Merton on functionalism
Merton goes beyond the boundaries of traditional functionalism which considers functional unity,
universalism and indispensability and gives new insights on these postulates
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But in a modern complex society, the postulate of functional unity, as Merton argues,

needs to be redefined
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Secondly,
Merton wants the sociologists to remember that social usages or beliefs may be functional for some
groups and dysfunctional for others in the same society
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As a result, the functionalists, says
Merton, ought to specify the unit for which the given social or cultural item is functional
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Functional universalism: This postulate holds that all social or cultural forms have positive
functions
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And it may happen that a net balance of functional consequences is negative, not positive
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Hence, both functions and dysfunctions need to be studies before arriving at
any conclusion
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In other words, all that persists in a society is indispensable and nothing, it seems, can be
altered
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There are functional alternatives, equivalents or substitutes
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For example, in
modern societies where women too work outside the home, some functions of the family such as,
childcare can be performed by other institutions like creches, day-care centres, and so on
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The paradigm brings out into open the array of assumptions, concepts
and basic propositions employed in a sociological analysis
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A paradigm for functional analysis therefore helps to make clear how
to conduct functional analysis, what to study, what to emphasize upon and how to locate one’s analysis in
the ideological struggle between conservatism and radicalism
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Hence it has to be a regularized, patterned and standardized social practice
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He favors a rigorous logical
method of classification of concepts in his formulation of “pattern variables” or “types of orientations”
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It places undue emphasis on
functionality and integration of social actions which Merton questions
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something might be functional to one group and dysfunctional to other
or subsystem
example, coverage of cricket by Doordarshan may have function of lowering the crime rate during those
hours, but on the other hand, it may breed and promote inefficiency in workplace
hence, Merton says, it is necessary to be particularly scientific about the unit for which one wants to study
the functional consequences in an item
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thus, a sociologist should not sway in the study of a
single aspect but do a net balance analysis of functions, dysfunctions and non-functions of a social practice
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it all
depends in Merton’s opinion, on how you do your analysis and how you want to use it
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but,
on the other hand, if you concentrate solely on dysfunctional consequences it leads you towards an ultraradical utopia
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2
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Unnecessary elements should not be inducted
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Thus, in the study of development of rural structure, the
level of awareness campaign should be included a long with infrastructures
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Net balance = function + dysfunction: - E
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television is a main source information and knowledge,
apart from one of the best means of entertainment, in a positive way
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And in this way, the observer should pay attention on net
balance
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o DYSFUNCTIONS: Those observed consequences, which lessened the levels of adaptation
and adjustment in the system and so are dysfunctional for the system
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And are intended by the system
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o Latent: Such functions are unintended and also, they are not given acceptance in the system
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Basically, they are the consequences of
manifest functions
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These are
functions which people assume and expect the institutions to fulfil
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The manifest functions are obvious,
admitted and generally applauded
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These
are the unforeseen consequences of institutions
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Latent functions of an institution or partial structure may support the manifest

functions
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Latent functions may be irrelevant to
manifest functions
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Latent functions may even undermine manifest functions
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But the civil service system may have the latent function of establishing more rigid bureaucracy
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A function
may appear to be manifest for some in the social system and latent for others
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Merton has presented the difference in the following way:
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FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES BECOME RATIONAL: To explain it Merton has presented an
example of rain ceremony among American Hopi Indian
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This seems to be an irrational act at the first glance, but Merton’s presents its another
picture that the gathered, people at one place, enhance their group identity, unity and solidarity
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ENHANCES SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE: To explain it Veblen’s theory of leisure class can be
presented here
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people purchase
commodities further comfortable life but in a single household, the presence of plenty of such
commodities, shows conspicuous consumption
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Apart from it, the rate of inflation is affected with such activities, which is harmful for the economy
of the country
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For e
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Singapore government has provided, very nice facility for transportation
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OPEN NEW VISTAS FOR RESEARCH: A sociologist searches hidden consequences in any
manifest functions and in this way provides new ways for researches, not only to himself, but also is
others which could be definitely, functional and effective for society, in future
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It is a difficult question not resolved by Merton
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LACK OF OBJECTIVITY AND UNIVERSALITY: Like Brown and Malinowski, Merton also
presented an example of simple societies (Hopi Indians)
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It means, has studies suffer from subjective experiences
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Apart from it,
the political machine acting illegally can’t be approved in all societies and so its universality is also
questionable

Study of deviance:
Norms are prescribed standards which guide and regulate behavior
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For this reason, it is only with reference to norms that we can speak of, or define
deviance
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It is not easy to define deviance because it is not easy to define norms which are different in different

societies
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Deviance can be interpreted only in the socio-cultural context in which it occurs
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Thus, deviance can vary
with time, culture and social position

Types of deviance:
Different scholars classify deviance under three categories:
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Cultural and Psychological Deviation: In cultural deviation one departs from the norms of
a culture, while the psychological deviant deviates from the norms in personality organisation,
for example, the psychotic and neurotic
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For example, a boy belonging to an educated and respected family
takes to drugs and becomes a school dropout
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Primary and Secondary Deviation Social Deviance: Primary deviance refers to the
violation of social norms committed by a person who is not labelled as a deviant, and who is
basically a conformist in his or her life
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For instance, slipping an extra apple into the shopping
bag without paying for it etc
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One is labelled as a deviant
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It leads to isolations, possible dismissal,
ostracism and sometimes even imprisonment
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Biological theories tend to focus on
hereditary, anatomical or physiological factors (mesomorph, ectomorph and endomorph)
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g
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Sociologists usually
emphasize socio-cultural factors
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Sociological Theories of deviance: (i) Anomie theory (ii)Socio-cultural learning theory (iii) Labelling

theory and (iv) Conflict theory

1
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The credit for bringing out the implications of anomie for a general theory of
deviant behavior goes to the American sociologist, Robert K
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He aimed at showing how
some social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in the society, to engage in nonconforming rather than conforming conduct
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He identified two important elements of social and cultural structures:
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Culturally prescribed goals: These culturally prescribed goals are held out as legitimate
objectives, for all the members of the society
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Actual structures: provide the accepted modes or ways of reaching these goals
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It also depends upon what Merton calls,
Opportunity structure in society
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Thus, cultural goals are held out equally for all whereas institutional means to achieve them are not equally
available
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Deviant behavior can be seen as a symptom of this strain
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Thus, Merton propounds that deviance is present in so called normal people and is a result of mismatch
between culturally prescribed goals and means
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Merton believes that all subscribe to the American Dream, but the ways in which people go about obtaining
the Dream are not the same because not everyone has the same opportunities and advantages as the next
person

Merton's Paradigm of Deviant Behavior

Attitude to

Attitude to

Goals

Means

accept

accept

accept

Modes of

Goals

Means

Conformity

+

+

reject

Innovation

+

-

reject

accept

Ritualism

-

+

reject

reject

Retreatism

-

-

reject/accept

reject/accept

Rebellion

+/-

+/-

adaptation

1
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IAS prep
2
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Eg: Kejriwal
3
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4
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E
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: Taliban
5
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They are also seen as deviants
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g
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Therefore, Merton developed a middle range theory to explain deviance present in various forms
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Analysis of Deviance after Merton
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According to ALBERT COHEN, Merton’s theories can explain only Pecuniary deviance i
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directed
towards financial gains
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Such kind of deviance is a safety valve from frustration
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Deviance acts as a safety value to
them
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For them his theory does not explain why some
people should become innovators, ritualistic etc
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According to WALTER MILLAR, criminals are not always those who failed to gain legitimate
opportunity structure
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e
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According to DAVID MATZA, there is minor difference between criminal and non-criminals
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Most of the time, they try to disown the responsibility for
example – they argue that ‘everybody is corrupt only I am caught’
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In his theory of delinquent drift
Matza argue that young people flow with deviant behaviour
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e
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HOWARD BECKER: In his “Labelling Theory” argue that society applies label in context of
behaviour
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e
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•

EDWIN M
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Secondary deviance is the response
individual or group to societal reaction
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A person to
lead a normal existence is not to live in isolation
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A reference group is one to which a person always refers in order to evaluate his achievements, his role
performance, his aspirations and ambitions
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These reference groups can be (i)

membership groups of which a person is part of or (ii) even non-membership groups
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Human
beings look at themselves not solely through the eyes of their group members, but also through the eyes of
those who belong to other groups
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Essentially, Merton speaks of relative deprivation while examining the findings
of The American Soldier, a work published in 1949
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Merton gives an example of a
married soldier who is serving at a distant land
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They don’t have wives and children, so they are free from the responsibility from which married
soldiers cannot escape
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Likewise, the married soldier feels deprived when he compares himself
with his civilian married friend
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The married soldier therefore, feels deprived that by virtue of being a soldier he cannot
afford to enjoy the normal, day to day family life of a civilian
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First, there is an objective criterion, viz
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In other words, the sociological
concept of a group refers to a number of people frequently interact with one another
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In other words, they
feel that they have patterned expectations or forms of interaction, which are morally binding on them
and on other members
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These others include fellow members as well as non-members
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Nation as a collectivity contains groups and sub-groups within it
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broadly
speaking, non-members can be divided into three categories:
o Some may aspire to membership in the group
o others may be indifferent towards such affiliation
o still others may be motivated to remain unaffiliated with the group

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Example, if your father is an industrialist owning a factory
o as far as workers are concerned, you are a non-member
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then Robert Merton says a nonmembership group becomes a positive reference group
o second possibility, you are not bothered, you remain a non-member and never do you want
to belong to the group of the workers
o 3rd possibility, you remain non-member, but instead of remaining indifferent you hate the
workers, and fear nothing to admire in their culture
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It is like preparing oneself for the group to which an individual aspires but does not belong
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For an individual, says Merton,
anticipatory socialization ‘may serve the twin functions of aiding his rise into that group and of easing his
adjustment after he has become part of it’
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For example, if a village boy aspires to get into a privileged school
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If the system is open and he
is able to get into that school that anticipatory socialisation will be helpful but if the system is too closed
and keeps him away from admission, he will become what Merton calls – a marginal man
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Positive and Negative Reference Groups:
Reference groups, says Merton, are of two kinds
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Secondly, there is also a negative reference group which one dislikes and rejects and which, instead of
providing norms to follow, provokes one to create counter-norms
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e
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Imagine reaction of the colonized to their colonial masters
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In other words, for them, the
colonizers act like a positive reference group
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Instead of emulating their norms, they create counter-norms in order to separate themselves from
the colonizers
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Merton and sociology of science:
Merton carried out extensive research into the sociology of science, developing the Merton Thesis
explaining some of the religious causes of the Scientific Revolution, and the Mertonian norms of science,
often referred to by the acronym "CUDOS"
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They include:
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Communalism – the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give
up intellectual property in exchange for recognition and esteem
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Merton introduced many relevant concepts to the sociology of science, including 'obliteration by
Incorporation’- it occurs when at some stage in the development of a science, certain ideas become so
accepted and common-use that their contributors are no longer cited e
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periodic table by Mendeleev, Selffulfilling prophecy by Merton)
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Self-fulfilling prophecy: Merton's concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy stems from the Thomas theorem,
which states that "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences
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There’s a bank which is functioning normally
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Customers, seeing so many others at the
bank, begin to worry
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The number of customers at the bank
increases, as does their annoyance and excitement, which in turn fuels the false rumors of the bank's
insolvency and upcoming bankruptcy, causing more customers to come and try to withdraw their money
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But the rumor of insolvency caused a sudden
demand of withdrawal of too many customers, which could not be answered, causing the bank to become
insolvent and declare bankruptcy
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Questions:
Using Merton’s concept of latent and manifest functions, explain the persistence of corruption in Indian
society
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Conformity -- This deviance accepts both institutional means and cultural goals
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2
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Eg
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3
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4
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5
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Here a person might change his plans of going out dut to heavy traffic and
sit at home watching TV
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" Explain with reference to R
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Merton's contribution
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What, according to Merton, is the difference between 'unanticipated consequences' and 'latent functions'?
Give examples to elaborate
How, according to Merton, are deviant subcultures generated?
How can we use reference group theory to understand fashion in society?



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