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SIMPLIFIED PHYSICS
1
...

Power also = IV ( current x voltage)
= I²R ( square of current x resistance)
= V²/R ( square of voltage /resistance)
=F x V (force x velocity)

Symbol
Kg
M
S
K
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Dimension
M
L
T
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Momentum = mass x velocity = kgms⁻¹
Energy, Work, Moment, Boyle’s law(P₁V₁=P₂V₂), all have the same S
...

2
...
g length of a table= meter rule
To measure small length e
...
g thickness of a piece of paper = micrometer screw gauge
NOTE: You might be asked for the uncertainty in the measurement
...
E
...
5mm
Chemical/Beam balance is used to measure mass
...

Weight depends on gravity i
...

Mass does not depend on gravity i
...
SCALERS AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Scaler quantities has magnitude(size) only while vector quantities has both magnitude
and directions
Examples of Scalers are mass, speed, distance, power, potential, time, energy, length…
Examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, moment, force, momentum,
acceleration…
...
MOTION
Types of motion:
Translational motion( movement of the whole body)
Rotational motion (wheels of a car/fan blade)
Oscillatory/vibratory motion( to and fro motion e
...
g gas molecules)
NOTE: The motion of a car is translational and rotational motion
...

EQUATIONS OF MOTION:

a=v-u/t
v=u+at
s=ut+½at²
v²=u²+2as
u=initial velocity, v=final velocity, a=acceleration, t=time, s= distance
When a body starts from rest, u= 0
When a body comes to rest, v= 0
The slope of distance time graph represents speed
...

LAWS OF MOTION
First law states that a body will remain in its state of rest or motion unless acted upon
by an external force
...
e F=(mv-mu)/t
Third law states that action and reaction are equal and opposite
...

Impulse = force x time
=change in momentum i
...

Angular velocity(w)= v/r or 2∏ft
Centripetal force = mv²/r
r=radius
...
PROJECTILE MOTION
The direction/path of a projectile motion is parabolic
...

Maximum Height
It is the highest vertical distance attained
...

T=(2usinθ)/g
Time taken: This is the time taken to reach the maximum height
...

R=(u²sin2θ)/g
At maximum range, θ is 45
...

6
...
e static friction and dynamic friction
...

Laws of friction
Friction opposes motion
Friction depends on the nature of surface in contact
Friction is independent of the area of surface in contact
Frictional force is directly proportional to the normal reaction
...
e F=NR, where N is
the co-efficient of friction

Friction is independent of the relative velocity between surface in contact
...

Methods of reducing friction
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7
...

The pressure is directly proportional to depth and density
i
...

A hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of a liquid
...

8
...

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
...

It causes thermionic emission
...
e electrons leaving the surface of a hot metal
...

It also assumes that molecules are in a constant state of motion
...
In liquids, the molecules are free to move
within the container
...

The force of attraction is greatest in solid than in liquid and gas
...
An experiment to show for this
is the ball and ring experiment
...

LINEAR EXPANSIVITY(α)
Linear expansivity is the increase in length per unit length per degree rise in
temperature
...
I unit is per kelvin K⁻¹
α=linear expansivity, l₁=initial length, l₂=final length, θ₁=initial temp, θ₂=final temp
NOTE: You might be asked to explain what it means when question says the linear
expansivity of copper is 0
...
It means that a unit length of copper expands
by 0
...

AREA/SUPERFICIAL EXPANSIVITY(β)

It is the increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temperature
...
I unit of area expansivity is per Kelvin K⁻¹
CUBIC/ VOLUME EXPANSIVITY
It is the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature
...

MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction
Convection
Radiation( no material medium required)
Water is a bad conductor of heat
...

Black is also a good radiator of heat
...

APPLICATION OF THE MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A VACUUM FLASK
The vacuum is to reduce heat gain or loss by conduction or convection
The silvered surface is to reduce heat gain or loss by radiation
...

9
...
(i) negative and (ii) positive
NOTE: An ebonite rod rubbed with fur produces a negative charge
...


Like charge repels while unlike charges attracts
...

Conductors are substances that allow electron to pass through them e
...

Insulators are materials that do not allow electrons to pass through them e
...

The gold leaf electroscope is an instrument for detecting small charges
...

You can charge the electroscope by contact and electrostatic induction
...

DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES
The highest concentration of charges is always at the peak of the conductor
...

NOTE: A lightening conductor is a metal conductor on the roof of tall buildings which
help to conduct charges from thunder sparks to the earth
...

10
...

Potential difference(V) is the work done in moving a positive charge of 1C from one
point to another
...

Ammeter is used to measure current while voltmeter is used to measure voltage
...
It is measured in ohms
...
M
...

W=Q x V, where W is work, Q is charge, V is voltage
...

Connection in Parallel: The formula is 1/R=1/R₁+1/R₂+1/R₃…
For the connection in parallel, they have the same potential difference but different
current
...
is constant
V=I x R
FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
Length of the conductor
Area of the conductor
Temperature
Types of substance
...
e
...

WORK DONE IN A CIRCUIT
W=Q x V, where W is work, Q is charge, V is voltage
...
I unit of work is Joules
...
Remember that power= work or energy/time, So we
can have,
P= I² x R
P = V²/R
NOTE: A fuse is always connected to the live wire to cut the flow of the current when
the fuse rating is much
11
...

F=Ke, where F is force, e is extension and K is the force constant
...

Tensile stress= Force/ AREA
The S
...
It has no S
...

NOTE: Situations where you’ll have to calculate the original length with the initial and
final length, use this formula
Original length=(F₂L₁ - F₁L₂)/F₂-F₁
Young’s modulus = stress/strain
The S
...
I unit is Nm¯¹
It is also the tendency for the surface of a liquid to act like an elastic skin
...

Surface tension allows an object like a pin to float on a liquid
...

ADHESION: It is the force of attraction between molecules of different substance
...
This is because the
force of adhesion between water and glass molecule is greater than the force of
cohesion between water molecules
...

12
...
H
...

EXAMPLES OF S
...
M
Beating of the heart
Simple pendulum
Motion of strings in a guitar
Motion of child’s swing
...
The S
...

FREQUENCY(F): It is the number of complete revolution per second
...
e F=n/t
...
(Hz)
NOTE THAT PERIOD(T) ALSO = 1/F
(w) is known as angular velocity/speed
...
So we have the relation, v=wr
To find the period(T) of a simple pendulum, the formular is given by
T=2π x √l/g, where l is length
To find the period of a stretched spring, we have T= 2π x √m/k, m is mass and k is
force constant
...

RESONANCE: It is when the forcing frequency of an external periodic force coincides
with the natural frequency of body which is in contact
...

13
...

Work = Force x distance
...

Potential Energy = mgh, where m=mass, g=acceleration due to
gravity, h= height
...

Kinectic energy is the enrgy possessed by a body in motion
...

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY: It states that in a closed or isolated
system, the total mechanical energy is always conserved although may change from one
form to another
...
E = K
...


MACHINES

A machine is a device that allows a force (effort) applied at one end to overcome a
resisting force(load) at another end
...
A) = Load/Effort or Output force/Input force
...

Velocuty ratio = distance moved by effort/distance moved by load
...
A/V
...

However; in practical physics, a machine can never have a 100% efficiency
...
Lever: Lever consists of fulcrum, load, and effort
...
Examples are scissors, plier, hammer, crowbar
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Example is the wheelbarrow
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Example is the human fore arm
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The pulley system: The number of pulley is always the velocity ratio
...
The inclined plane:
The velocity ratio of an inclined plane = 1/sinθ
4
...

5
...
R = radius of wheel/radius of axle = R/r
NOTE THAT: V
...
A if friction is absent
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HEAT ENERGY

Heat is a measure of the total internal energy of a body
...

NOTE: Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of a body
...
at boiling point,
Lower fixed point is the temp
...

TEMPERATURE SCALE:
CELSIUS SCALE: The upper fixed point is 100˚C and the lower fixed point is 0˚C
FAHRENHEIT SCALE: The upper fixed point is 212˚F and the lower is 32˚F
KELVIN SCALE: The upper fixed point is 373K and the lower fixed point is 273K
NOTE: -273˚C is called absolute zero
...
Liquid in glass thermometer: The most common ones are the mercury in glass or
alcohol in glass
...
Clinical thermometer: This is the one used in hospitals
...

MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY
H = mcθ, where H=heat capacity, c=specific heat capacity, m=mass, θ=temp
...
The S
...
the S
...

HEAT CAPACITY AND ELECTRICAL METHOD
Ivt = mcθ
i
...
The calorimeter should be lagged to prevent heat within the surroundings
...
The hot metal solid should be quickly transferred to the calorimeter
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LATENT HEAT( HIDDEN HEAT): It is the heat supplied or removed which
causes a change of state without a change in temperature
...

H = m x l, where H=heat energy, m=mass, l=specific latent heat
...
I unit is J/Kg
Specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to covert a
unit mass of the solid to its liquid state without a change in temperature
...

Also, H = m x l
The S
...

NOTE: EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT AND MELTING POINT
Pressure causes the increase in boiling point and causes the decrease in melting
point
...

Saturated vapor pressure = boiling point
...
e S
...
P = B
...
Saturated vapor
pressure depends on temperature and the nature of the substance but it is
independent on the volume
...
at the which the water vapor in the air is just
sufficient to saturate it
...
C helps to maintain the relative humidity of the house
...


NOTE: Mist reduces visibility
...
A severe mist is called fog
...


GAS LAW

Manometer is the instrument for measuring gas pressure
...
Aneroid
barometer is used as an altimeter
...

BOYLE’S LAW
It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
volume, provided the temp is constant
...
e P α1/V
So, we have P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
CHARLE’S LAW
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature, provided its pressure is constant
...
e V α T
So, we have V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂
PRESSURE LAW
Its states that pressure is directly proportional to temperature
...
e P α T
So, we have P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂
GENERAL GAS LAW
It involves pressure, volume and temperature
...

The molecules are in a state of constant motion
...

NOTE: A gas cylinder feels heavy when carried because the molecules of the gas
collides with the walls of the container
...
Make sure you
convert it to the Kelvin equivalent
...


WAVES

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium transferring energy from one
point to another without causing any permanent displacement of the medium
...
Examples are sound wave and water wave
...
Examples are light waves and the electromagnetic spectrum
consisting of x-rays, radio wave and gamma ray
...

PROGRESSIVE WAVE
TRANSVERSE WAVE: These ae waves which travel perpendicularly to the
direction of the vibrations producing the wave
...

LONGITUDINAL WAVE: These are waves which travel in the direction parallel to
the vibrations of thr medium
...

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Reflection: The bouncing back of the wave
...

Interference: This is the interference of waves
...

NOTE: For constructive interference, the angle is 0˚, but a larger amplitude while for
destructive interference, it has an angle of 180˚ and the amplitude tends to zero
...


:In the diagram of a progressive wave, crest is the one above while
trough is the one below
...

Wavelength is the distance between two successive crest or troughs
...

RAYS AND BEAM OF LIGHT: A ray is the direction along which light energy flows
while a beam is a collection of rays
...

EFFECTS OF THE RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT ARE SHADOW AND
ECLIPES
...
Partial shadow is called pre-umbra while total shadow is called umbra
...

Eclispe of the sun(Solar eclipse) occurs when the moon is between the sun and earth
...

We can also have v/u = HI/HO, where HI= image height and HO=object height
...
If the pin hole is
light, the image will be blurry but bright
...
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie
on the same point
...
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
...
e iͦ = rͦ
...
The defect of the plane mirror is it produces multiple images
...

NUMBER OF IMAGES FORMED BY AN INCLINED MIRROR
n = C360/θ – 1)
PERISCOPE: It is an instrument that submarines use to view oncoming objects
...
It consists of two plane mirrors which are placed at
45˚
ROTATING MIRROR: R = 2θ
CONCAVE MIRROR & CONVEX MORROR
A concave mirror is a converging mirror while a convex mirror is a diverging mirror
NOTE: Divergence denotes a –ve focal length, magnification and image
: Convergence denotes a +ve focal length, magnification and image
Images formed by a concave mirror depending on the position of the object:
Object between F&P = virtual, erect and magnified
Object at F = at infinity
Object between C & F = inverted, diminished and real
Object at C = same size as object, real and inverted
...

However; focal length(f) = r/2, where r= radius of curvature
...

The images formed by a convex mirror no matter the position of the object is
always virtual, erect and diminished
...


A concave mirror is used as a dressing mirror while a convex mirror is used as a
driving mirror because of its wide field of view
...

The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
constant for a pair of a given media
...

i
...
n = refractive index
...

n = real depth/apparent depth
d = real depth – apparent depth
...

NOTE: It is observed that when a pencil is dipped into a water, it looks like the
pencil has broken
...
All these are caused by refraction
...
E
...

We have n = 1/sinC, where C is the critical angle
...

REFRACTION OF LIGHT TO PRISMS
n = sin({A + Dm}/2) / sin(A/2)
A= angle and Dm= minimum deviation
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
It is the separation of white light into its component colors of red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet
...

Secondary & Primary colors
...

Secondary colors are gotten from the mixture of primary colors
Red + Green = Yellow
Green + Blue = Cyan
Red + Blue = Magenta(purple)
LENSES
Types of lenses are concave(diverging) lens and convex(converging) lens
...

Images formed by a concave(diverging) lens depending on the position of the
object
...

Images formed by a convex(converging) lens depending on the position of the
object:
Object between F and P = virtual, erect and magnified
Object t F = image at infinity
...

LENS FORMULAR
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
M = v/u
Power of a lens(p) = 1/f…
...
I unit is diopters
...


SMILILARITIES BETWEEN THE HUMAN EYE AND THE CAMERA

The pupil in the eye has the same function as the aperture in the camera
...
e light
passes through them
...
i
...

The film in the camera has the same function as the retina in the eye
...
e images
are formed on them
...

The eye is a biological organ while the camera is a mechanical device
...
The suspensory ligaments in the eye helps with
accommodation
...

DEFECTS OF THE EYE
SHORT SIGHTEDNESS( MYOPIA): A short sighted person can see near
objects but cant see distant objects
...

This is because the eyeball is too long or the lens is too converging
...

LONG SIGHTEDNESS(HYPERMETROPIA): A long sighted person can see distant
object but cant see near objects
...
This is due
to the eyeball being too long or the lens being too diverging
...

PRESBYOPIA: It is a defect due to old age
...

ASTIGMATISM: It is caused by the uneven curvature of the lens in human eye
...

MAGNIFICATIONS
Magnification of a simple microscope(M) = v/u
Linear magnification of a compound microscope(M) = M₁ x M₂, where
M₁=magnification of objective lens and M₂=magnification of eyepiece lens
...

Magnification of a telescope(M) = focal length of objective lens/focal length of
eyepiece
SOUND WAVES
Sound wave is a mechanical wave
...

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW FOT THIS
NOTE: The vacuum pump is used to introduce air and to evacuate air from
the bell jar
...

Air is the material medium
...
It is
independent on pressure
...
we have V/√T₁ = V/√T₂
It should be noted that before solving, the temperature should be converted
to its kelvin scale equivalent
...

To calculate the velocity of sound involving echo, we have
V = 2d/t, where d is distance and t is time
...

It is used for the exploration of gas and oil
...
g submarine energy
...
It depends on frequency
...
It depends on overtone or harmonics
...

For a closed pipe: the fundamental frequency(F) = V/4L
...

F = 3V/4L (2nd harmonic or 1st overtone)
F = 5V/4L (3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone)
F = 7V/4L (4th harmonic or 3rd overtone)
Therefore, the harmonics in a closed pipe s a succession of odd numbers
For open pipes: the fundamental frequency(F) = V/2L
...

F = V/L

(2nd harmonic or 1st overtone)

F = 3V/L (3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone)
F = 4V/L (4th harmonic or 3rd overtone)
Therefore, the harmonics in an open pipe is a progression of numbers
...

: Vibration in string is the same as that in an open pipe
...

Types of musical instruments
Wind instruments
...
g, sax, clarinets, flute, organ pipe
...
g keyboard, volin, guitar
Percussion instruments E
...

18
...
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
It consists of electromagnetic waves e
...

The correct order is: Radio wave – Infra red – Visible light (ROYGBIV) –
Ultraviolet ray – X rays – gamma rays
...

Uses of some waves
Radio wave is used in radio transmission
...
Gamma ray has the most penetrating
power
...
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Gravitational field is a region where the gravitational force can be felt
...
67 x 10¯¹¹, r is distance
...

Gravitational Potential energy = mgh
ESCAPE VELOCITY: It is the minimum energy required for an object to just
escape the gravitational field of an astronomical body e
...

So we have V = 2gR
...
4 x 10⁶
21
...

INVERSE SQUARE LAW: It states that the force of attraction between two
bodies is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) apart
F α 1/r²
COULOMB’S LAW: It states that the force of attraction between two charges is
directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of their distance (r) apart
...

WORK DONE IN ELECTRIC FIELD
W = q x v, where w is work, q is charge, voltage
...

Capacitance is directly proportional to the area and inversely proportional to the
distance
...

Capacitors in parallel, the equivalent capacitor is
C = C₁ + C₂ + C₃
CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR

C = Q/V, where Q is charge, V is voltage
...
A primary cell cannot be recharged
after use, but a secondary cell can be recharged after use
...
Polarization is simply the
formation of hydrogen bubbles on the cathode
...
M
...
of a cell
E
...
f of a cell is the potential difference across its terminals when it is not delivering
any circuit
...
m
...

v = Ir is called lost volt
...

A galvanometer is used to detect small current while a potentiometer is used for
measuring the potential difference of a cell
...
ELECTROLYSIS
Applications of electrolysis
Electroplating
Calibration of ammeter
Purification of metals
FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS
It states that the mass of a substance liberated during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity which pass through it
...

So we have M = Zit, where Z is electrochemical equivalent, I is
current and t is time
...
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH GASES
Gases conduct electricity with high voltage and low pressure
...
They travel in a straight line
2
...
They are negatively charged
4
...

THERMIONIC EMISSION
It is the emission of electrons from the surface of a hot metal
...
MAGNETIC FIELD
POLES OF MAGNETS: they are the north and south pole
...

NOTE: Like poles repel while unlike poles attract

Methods of making magnets
1
...
It is the best method
2
...

Methods of demagnetization
1
...
Mechanical method ( By hammering)
3
...

: Steel retains its magnetism longer than iron does
...

Applications of electromagnetism
1
...
In telephone earpiece
THE EARTH MAGNETIC FIELD
ANGLE OF DECLINATION: It is the angle between the
geographic and magnetic merdians at a place
...

The angle od dip is 0˚at the equator and 90˚at the poles (greatest)
Magnetic Force on a charge moving in Magnetic Field
NOTE: F = qvBsinѲ
Where f is force, q is charge, b is flux density measured in Tesla
...
There is no force
when Ѳ= 0˚(parallel)

NOTE: LENZ LAW: It states that the induced e
...
f is in such a
direction as to oppose the motion producing it
...

Back e
...
f is known as inductance
NOTE: Heat energy is lost by eddy current and tis can be reduced by
the use of a soft laminated iron
...

GENERATORS:
There are two classes of generator
1
...
C)
2
...
C)
A generator has these features: An armature, A magnetic field, Rings, carbon brushes
The difference between an A
...
C generator is an A
...
C generator has on split ring
...
A direct current is one which always flow in one direction
...
C can be measured with
Hot-wire ammeter
Moving iron ammeter
Moving coil galvanometer
...
M
...
c or d
...
The number of turns must increase
2
...
The coil should be wound with soft iron core
...


25
...
i
...

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1
...

2
...

NOTE: It is only an A
...

Formular for transformers
Es/Ep = Ns/Np and Es/Ep = Ip/Is, where Ns is number of turn in the
secondary coil, Np is number of turns in the primary coils, Es is voltage in the
secondary coil, Ep is the voltage in the primary coil, Is is the current in the
secondary coil and ip is the current in the primary coil
...

The primary coil is called input
The secondary school is called output
...
This is known as High tension transmission
...
SIMPLE A
...

Ir
...
s = Io/2
Vr
...
s = Vo/2

r
...
s is root mean square
...
C CIRCUIT
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE: Xc = 1/2πfc, where c is capacitance
...


: In the inductive reactance, the voltage leads the current by 90˚ or л/2 or
the current lags the voltage by 90˚ or л/2
...
The S
...


So we have, Z = √(R²+{Xι-Xc}²)

Impedance involving resistance and inductance, Z = √(R²+Xι²)
Impedance involving resistance and capacitance, Z = √(R²+Xc²)
Power in an A
...

Power with no angle, P = I²R

(This is mostly used)

Resonance in a R
...
C circuit
...
c circuit when the maximum current is obtained
...
L
...


27
...

RADIOACTIVITY PARTICLES
1
...

2
...

They have light mass
No fluorescence in Zns
3
...

They have the highest penetrating power
...

NOTE: Alpha particle can be stopped by lead, Beta particle can be stopped by
aluminium
...

Example; a radioactive elemnt has 1000atoms and a half life of 10years
...
Therefore, we have

10years = 500atoms
10years = 250 atoms
10 years = 125 atoms
...

Decay constant (t) = 0
...

RADIOISOTOPES: These are radioactive isotopes that are made artificially by
bombarding the neutrons or protons or deuterons of the element
E
...

Carbon-14: I is used for carbon dating
...

NUCLEAR FISSION: It is the splitting of the nucleus of a heavy element into two
light nuclei having nearly the same mass with the release of radiation and energy
...

NUCLEAR FUSION: Nuclear fusion is the process where two nuclei fuse to form a
heavier nucleus with the release of energy and radiation
...

Nuclear fusion is also used in the hydrogen bomb
...

: When an element undergoes a beta particle, its mass number
remains the same while its atomic number increases by 1
...

28
...

M = F x d
The S
...

Examples are the turning of a tap, pedals of a bicycle
...

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM UNDER THE ACTION OF PARALLEL COPLANAR
FORCES
1
...
The total clockwise moments of the forces about any point on the body must be
equal to the total anti-clockwise moment about the same point
...
G)
It is the point at which the entire weight of the body appears to be
concentrated
...
G is at the centre for circular objects
C
...

C
...

C
...

STABILITY OF OBJECTS

1
...
E
...

2
...

E
...

3
...
g, a cone resting on its
side, a ball on a flat surface
...
G
...
ENERGY QUANTIZATION
E = hf
E = hc/λ
Where E is energy, f is frequency is speed of light (3 x 10⁸), h is plank’s
constant (6
...

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When light falls on a metal surface, electrons are emitted
...
The emitted electron are called photoelectron
...
E of the electron depends on the wavelength and frequency
...

TERMINOLOGIES
THRESHOLD FREQUENCY(f˳): This is the frequency of light which falling on a
surface, is just sufficient to liberate electrons without giving it additional kinetic
energy
...


Work function(w): It is the minimum energy required to liberate an electron from
a metal surface
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This explains that light can exist as a wave and as a particle
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Phenomenon where light exits as a particle are, the Compton effect and photoelectric
effect
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HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
It states that it is impossible to know the accurately the exact position and momentum
of a particle simultaneously
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30
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Examples of semi-conductors are germanium and silicon
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For gas, ions and electrons are the carriers
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Holes are positively charged while electrons are negatively charged
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N-type semi-conductor(Negative)
2
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The resistance of metals is increased with an increase in temperature
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To produce a p-type semi-conductor, impurity which is trivalent is added such as
boron or indium to germanium or silicon
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In the n-type semi-conductor, electrons are the majority carriers while holes are
the minority carriers
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P-N JUNCTION DIODE
It is used for rectification
It changes a
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NOTE: BOLDED TEXTS INDICATE EMPHASIS
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