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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

Core Course Paper – 1: Methodology of Education Research
Chapter 1: Concept of Educational Research

1
...
The
word behaviour is taken broadly to mean such phenomena as learning, attitudes, aptitudes, abilities,
interests, practices, processes, emotions and so forth
...
Since education is
fundamentally concerned with the development of individuals, the central purpose educational research is to
find ways to improve student learning
...

 Definition
Educational research is a careful, systematic investigation into any aspect of education
...

The nature of educational research is analogous with the nature of research itself, which is systematic,
reliable and valid to find the “truth”, investigates knowledge, and solves problems (William Wiersma,
1991)
...
However, the educational research is more complex because it can use
various approaches and strategies to solve problems in educational setting
...
In addition, educational research is
important because of contributing knowledge development, practical improvement, and policy information
(John W
...
Therefore, educators can use those research findings to improve their
competences and teaching and learning process
...
According to Gary
Anderson (1998), there are ten characteristics of educational research
...
The
purposes of research are to solve the problems, investigate knowledge, and establish the principles in
educational phenomena
...

Furthermore, procedure is an important characteristic of educational research, which involves collecting data
with accurate observation, objective interpretation, and verification
...
The
researchers also need to be patient and careful to use every step of research’s procedures to achieve the
purpose of research
...
To orient students to the nature of educational research: its purposes, forms, and importance
...
To provide information which helps students become more intelligent consumers of educational
research: where to locate it, how to understand it and critique it
...
To provide information on the fundamentals of doing educational research such as selecting a
problem, using available tools, organizing a project, etc
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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You need only to look around and everywhere you see phenomena which will arouse your curiosity
...
By asking relevant questions we
create an inquisitive environment which is the prerequisite for research
...

 Research requires a plan
...
Research is not just by looking-up something in the hope of coming across the solution to your
problem
...

 Research demands a clear statement of the problem
...
The statement of the problem
should be stated precisely and grammatically complete, must set forth what it seeks to discover and enables
one to see what one is attempting to research
 Research deals with the main problem through subproblems
...

 Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses
Having stated the problem and the related subproblems, the subproblems are then each viewed through
logical constructs called hypotheses
...

 Research deals with facts and their meaning
...
Organise the data collected into a form that is potentially meaningful
...
2: Types of Educational Research
There is not general agreement on the types of educational research which exist
...
It relies on
qualitative techniques especially observation and careful recording of events and social interactions
...
It generally relies on qualitative
data such as written documents and oral histories
...
It relies on qualitative and
quantitative data gathered from written documents, personal interviews, test results, surveys, etc
...
It relies on quantitative data
such as test scores, grade point averages, attitudinal instruments, etc
...

Action and Evaluation Research - attempts to determine the value of a product, procedure, or
program in a particular (e
...
, school, district) setting with the goal of improving same
...


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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research
Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1
 Causal Comparative - attempts to explore cause and effect relationships where causes already exist


and cannot be manipulated
...

Experimental - attempts to explore cause and effect relationships where causes can be manipulated
to produce different kinds of effects
...

Purpose

Examples

Qualitative

To provide rich narrative descriptions with Observations of school renewal
words
of
phenomena
that
enhance teams to understand the role of
understanding
...


Quantitative

To describe phenomena numerically to answer The relationship between amount
specific questions or hypotheses
...


Basic

To increase knowledge and understanding of Understand how feedback affects
phenomena
...


Applied

To solve practical educational problems
...
Decide whether to keep or phase
out a prekindergarten program
...


Non-Experimental

To describe and predict phenomena without Determine
the
relationship
manipulating factors that influence the between socioeconomic status
phenomena
...


Experimental

To determine the causal relationship between
two or more phenomena by direct manipulation
of factors that influence student performance or
behavior
...


Determine
which
grouping
procedure results in the highest
achievement for all students
...


1
...
4: Steps of Research Problems:
No unique style, format is declared and no rigidity is found to determine the steps of educational research
...

1
...
Proposal writing
13
...
Literature review
8
...
Identification of
9
...
Writing the individual
limitations in previous
10
...
Validity and reliability of
15
...
Rationale
data
16
...
Objective of the study
12
...
Appropriate methodology
finalizing
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of Education (Sau
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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

Chapter 2: RESROURCES FOR RESEARCH
2
...
The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature
...
Select a limited number of
works that are central to your area rather than trying to collect a large number of works that are not as
closely connected to your topic area
...
While the form of the literature
review may vary with different types of studies, the basic purposes remain constant:











Provide a context for the research
Justify the research
Ensure the research hasn't been done before (or that it is not just a "replication study")
Show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge
Enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject
Illustrate how the subject has been studied previously
Highlight flaws in previous research
Outline gaps in previous research
Show that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field
Help refine, refocus or even change the topic

2
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Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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2
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A common error for novices is to select a review title that is all encompassing, such as
‘pressure ulcers’ or ‘pain’
...
Therefore, it is advisable to refine this further so that the final amount of information generated is
manageable
...
Is there a specific element of this topic that is of interest, such as prevention or
management? Identifying what exactly is of interest and why can help refine the topic (Hendry and Farley,
1998)
...

Having sufficient literature is also important, particularly when the review is an academic
assignment
...
Attempting to change the topic close to
the deadline for submission is usually a recipe for disaster so select an area that will hold your interest and
ensure that there is enough data to meet your needs
...
Topics that are too broad will result in reviews that are either too
long or too superficial
...
It is much more difficult to cut content
successfully, especially if time is short
...
A systematic approach is considered most likely to generate a review that will be beneficial in
informing ractice (Hek and Langton, 2000)
...
While the focus of the literature may vary depending on the overall purpose, there are several
useful strategies for the analysis and synthesis stages that will help the construction and writing of the
review
...
Most published articles contain a summary or abstract at the beginning of the paper,
which will assist with this process and enable the decision as to whether it is worthy of further reading or
inclusion
...

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of Education (Sau
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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

4 Writing the review
Once the appraisal of the literature is completed consideration must be given to how the review will
be structured and written
...

The basis of good writing is to avoid long and confusing words and keep jargon to a minimum
...

Many universities provide facilities for developing and improving writing skills and it is a good idea
to try to attend such a course
...

The organization of material in an objective manner and the structure of the review are crucial to its
comprehensiveness
...
For example,
systematic reviews have a clear structure that must be followed and that will dictate for the most part show
the writing should be undertaken
...
Nonetheless, it is important to be logical and there are some key elements that need to be
included in all literature reviews
...
The length of literature reviews vary and word limits and assignment
criteria must be considered in the overall construction
...
An abstract is a short summary of the findings of the review and is normally undertaken last
(Hendry and Farley, 1998)
...
Regardless of whether the review is part of a
course of study for for publication, it is an essential part of the process that all sourced material is
acknowledged
...
Omissions or errors in referencing are very common and students often lose vital marks in assignment
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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

because of it
...

Some universities offer their students access to referencing systems, such as Endnote, and while they
may initially appear difficult to learn they are worth the effort later in terms of ensuring the reference list is
accurate
...

2
...
P rimar y
...
” S e condar y
...
” T e rtiar y
...
” Tertiary sources synthesize and explain the work of others
and might be useful early in your research, but they are generally weak support for your own arguments [1]
...
Examples of primary sources are data sets, computer runs, computer programs, scale models,
drawings, and engineering notebooks
...

Secondary
...
Journal
articles are often the most current source of information on a topic of study that is new or subject to rapid
change
...

Engineering journals are typically field-specific
...

Tertiary
...

“Dictionaries and encyclopedias are excellent starting points for research
...
Some works include an index, which will provide excellent access to a subject [4]
...

2
...
Reading Skills
1
...
Pre Reading Strategies
3
...
SQ3R Skills

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

1
...
:
Characteristics of Critical Readers
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

They are honest with themselves
They resist manipulation
They overcome confusion
They ask questions
They base judgments on evidence
They look for connections between subjects
They are intellectually independent

Ask yourself the following questions as you read:
What is the topic of the book or reading?
What issues are addressed?
o What conclusion does the author reach about the issue(s)?
o What are the author's reasons for his or her statements or belief?
Is the author using facts, theory, or faith?
o

Facts can be proven
Theory is to be proved and should not be confused with fact
Opinions may or may not be based on sound reasoning
Faith is not subject to proof by its nature
Has the author used neutral words or emotional words?
Critical readers look beyond the language to see if the reasons are clear
o Be aware of why you do, or do not, accept arguments of the author
o

2
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Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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It can be effective either in a group or by yourself
 Pre-questions:
Often chapters in texts provide organizing questions
...
? Where does
...
belong to?
Characteristics:
How would I describe
...
look like? What are its parts?
Examples
What is a good example of
...
? What can I imagine about
...

Use the Internet to search for pictures related to your title/topic to give you visual images of what you are
about to read
...
Ask your
teacher for assistance in developing these
...

This may take the form of class discussions, printed previews, photographs, outlines, or films
...

 Vocabulary Previews:
Unfamiliar key words need to be taught to students before reading so that new words, background
information, and comprehension can improve together
...
Arrange words to
show the relationships to the learning task
...
Share information with students
...

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of Education (Sau
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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

 Structural Organizers: Before reading an assignment, basic frameworks which are included in the text
should be pointed out such as cause-effect or problem-solution
...
A review of skimming techniques might also be appropriate as these various
areas are covered
...
Purposes may come from
teacher directed questions, questions from class discussions or brainstorming, or from the individual student
...
These may be generated by the student or the teacher, but the teacher should use these to guide
students in the needed direction for the assigned selection
...
What is the author trying to say? What is his point of view
and his reason for writing the particular work?

3
...

You can adapt it to working alone, but discussions definitely help
...

Think of it as a pre-reading inventory
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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o Record these in the K column of your chart until you cannot think of more
...

o Organize the entries into general categories
...

Preview the texts table of contents, headings, pictures, charts etc
...

Think in terms of what you will learn, or what do you want to learn about this
...

They will help you focus your attention during reading
...

o

L stands for Learned
The final stage is to answer your questions,
as well as to list what new information you have learned
...

List out what you learn as you read,
either by section, or after the whole work, whichever is comfortable for you
...

o
o

Pose new questions about the topic
How can I learn more or answer questions not answered in my worksheet
These include other sources of information, including: organizations, experts, tutors,
websites, librarians, etc
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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I send them over land and sea,I send them east and west;But after they have worked for me,I give them all a
rest
...
SQ3R reading method
SQ3R is a reading strategy formed from its letters:
Survey! Question! Read! Recite! Review!
SQ3R will help you build a framework to understand your reading assignment
...

This variation is called SQW3R
 When you begin to Read:
o Look for answers to the questions you first raised
o Answer questions at the beginning or end of chapters or study guides
o Reread captions under pictures, graphs, etc
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Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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o If you took notes while reciting,
write questions for the notes you have taken
in the left hand margins of your notebook
...

o Cover the right hand column of your text/note-book
and orally ask yourself the questions in the left hand margins
...

o Develop mnemonic devices for material which need to be memorized
...

o

Days Three, Four and Five
Alternate between your flash cards and notes and test yourself
(orally or in writing) on the questions you formulated
...

o

Weekend
Using the text and notebook, make a Table of Contents - list all the topics and sub-topics you
need to know from the chapter
...

o Recite the information orally and in your own words as you put the Study Sheet/Map
together
...

o

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

B
...
and Gerald J
...
Oliu, 1993
...
New York: St
...

and
Booth, Wayne C
...
Colomb and Joseph M
...
The Craft of Research
...
have good advice about notetaking
...
and Gerald J
...
Oliu, states that the challenge is to condense others’
work without distorting it
...


Booth, Wayne C
...
Colomb and Joseph M
...
The Craft of Research
...
:
recommends writing and summarizing as you find sources and has a three-page section called
“Quick Tip: Speedy Reading
...

The book suggests that not all five steps are needed all the time
...
While taking notes and preparing condensed summaries of the
work of others, you must be ever mindful of the requirement to eventually cite all “borrowed” work in
your final paper
...
Readers and researchers are advised to locate and carefully read about these topics from
any available source in order to avoid trouble while writing
...
5 Internet Search: to be taken from external resources

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of Education (Sau
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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

Chapter 3: SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
3
...

– However, graduate students can learn the research process on an important topic just as easy
as learning the research process on a piddle topic!
Consider the feasibility of the project
...
Are data available?
– How much will it cost?
Make sure the topic is ethical to study
...

By the time you are done, you may really be tired of the topic
The “newness” of the topic may hold you interest longer, however there is some value in repeating
previous research
Make sure the research question is clear
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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2 SOURCES OF THE SELECTION OF PROCESS
Problems can be conceptualized at a number of levels
...

Beginners tend to start with relatively specific research problems focused on the face value of the question,
but eventually develop a broad research question with great generality
...
Later the person and the behavior are seen as arbitrary
instances of a much more important and challenging question
...
This
section details some of the sources for an initial, relatively specific, research problem
...

In addition to not knowing what unresolved problems remain, is missing the more fundamental broader issue
underlying any specific behavior change
...

A
...
You are told what problem to
research and how to do it
...

Example: Students in Experimental Psychology were assigned the task of finding out if social attention
made their roommate study more
...

B
...

You must verify that they are true before considering them as a source of knowledge
...
It is critical
to note, however, that the task of research is not to simply validate or invalidate common sense but rather to
come to understand nature
...
To research this belief a randomly selected half of a class was told to study immediately before
taking a test while the other half was prohibited from studying before the test
...

C
...
The
systematic development of the idea is lacking
...
It is risky because
you may not be able to get other researchers to understand why the research is important
...
Alternatively, it could be the application of a general rule of
thumb or guessing that a new problem is actually a well-understood function in disguise
...
You conducted a study in which material was
orally presented before the test on a random half of the occasions
...

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

D
...
Discussion among friends can
often spark our interest in a problem or provides us with the reinforcers for pursuing a question
...
The group provides you with the idea and the
excitement to do research on how students can affect the accuracy of a teacher's understanding
...
Research Problem from Knowledge of Techniques and Apparatus
This is the selection of a research topic based on your special knowledge outside the field
...

Sometimes we realize that we can apply a new technique or apparatus to an area to which it has not yet been
applied
...

Example: You may know about microelectronics and be good at detailed work
...

F
...
While reading you will often wonder
why, or will disagree, or will realize that you have a better idea than the original author
...
You try stretching either the light period or stretching the dark period
to make up the phase shift
...


3
...
Without a focused and specific question, you might produce a response that is vague and too
general to adequately address it in the space and time provided
...


Instructions
1
...
Use the Internet, or go to the local library to browse journals and books in your
topic area
...

Alternatively, search periodicals for recent events in the field, such as discoveries or breakthroughs
...
Brainstorm the topic
...
Write down as
many related words and ideas as you can
...
When you've finished, look at your answers and categorize them as
best as you can
...
You can then investigate one or more of these narrower,
more focused topics
...
Focus on one aspect of the topic
...

For a research paper on eating disorders, for example, you could focus on the cost implications of
treatment, or its emotional effects on patients
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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Consider time and place
...
A research paper on women's health, for
example, can be narrowed to women's sexual health in the 1700s
...

5
...
Narrow your topic area down to include a specific gender, age and cultural
or ethnic background
...
You can also compare and contrast
between two or more groups throughout your research
...
" This topic could develop in many different ways
...
?
What time period do you want to cover?
On what geographic region do you want to focus?
What kind of information do you need?
o A brief summary or a lengthy explanation?
o Periodical articles, books, essays, encyclopedia articles?
o Statistics?

Sample Topic Narrowing Chart:
General Topic:
Time span:
Place:
Person or group:
Event or Aspects:

fashion
1920s
US; urban; big cities (not rural)
youth; college age
sexual attitudes; behavior; sociological

3
...
6 DEFINING THE RELATED TERMS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM: to be taken from sir

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

Chapter 4: VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES
4
...

Variable - a characteristic that takes on different values/conditions for different individuals
...
(Also known as a predictor variable in certain types of
research
...


has

in

a

Dependent Variable - a variable being affected or assumed to be affected by an independent variable
...
Also known as an outcome variable in
certain types of research
...
g
...
Serve as control variables only when effects are known/predetermined
...
Also known as nuisance variables, mediator variables, or confounding variables
...
(May be included in the research design to help explain variation in results
...

! when controlled - control variable (effects are known)
! when uncontrolled - intervening variable (effects unknown)
VARIABLES AS THEY ARE MEASURED
Nominal - measurement scale in which numbers are used as names of categories; i
...
, categorizes without
order
...
(Ordered data)
Interval - measurement scale that categorizes, indicates relative amount or rank-order of a characteristic,
and has units of equal distance between consecutive points on the scale
...
e
...
Rarely used in social science research
...
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Uni
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Ed
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OPERATIONAL DEFINITION - a definition expressed in terms of the processes or operations and
conditions that are being used to measure the characteristic under study
...
2 MEANING AND TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Research problem statement - by itself provides general direction for the study--it does not include all the
specific information
...
e
...

A good hypothesis should:
1
...
be based on either theory or evidence (and worthy of testing)
3
...
be as brief as possible consistent with clarity
5
...
be operational by eliminating ambiguity in the variables or proposed relationships
Types and Forms of Hypotheses
Research (Substantive) Hypothesis - simple declarative statement of the hypothesis guiding the research
...


Statistical Hypothesis:
(1) a statement of the hypothesis given in statistical terms
...

(3) a translation of the research hypothesis into a statistically meaningful relationship
...


Null Hypothesis - a statistical hypothesis stated specifically for testing (which reflects the no difference
situation)
...


Alternative Hypothesis - an alternative to the null hypothesis that reflects a significant difference situation
...

Directional Hypothesis - a hypothesis that implies the direction of results
...


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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

Nondirectional Hypothesis - a hypothesis that does not imply the direction of results
...
They identify factors for the researcher to consider without specifying anticipated
results
...

Questions emerge from the researcher's topic of interest plus information gathered during the literature
review
...

4
...
4 TESTING A HYPOTHESIS
A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from a controlled
experiment or an observational study (not controlled)
...
The phrase "test of significance" was coined by Ronald Fisher: "Critical tests of this kind
may be called tests of significance, and when such tests are available we may discover whether a second
sample is or is not significantly different from the first
...

In frequency probability, these decisions are almost always made using null-hypothesis tests (i
...
, tests that
answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value
for the test statistic that is at least as extreme as the value that was actually observed?)[2] One use of
hypothesis testing is deciding whether experimental results contain enough information to cast doubt on
conventional wisdom
...

Statistical hypothesis testing is a key technique of frequentist statistical inference
...
[3] Other approaches to
reaching a decision based on data are available via decision theory and optimal decisions
...
The critical region is usually denoted by the letter C
...
One sample tests are used to test if the
population parameter () is different from a specified value
...

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

Two sample tests can further be classified as unpaired or paired two sample tests
...
For example, when testing hypothesis about the effect of a treatment on
(say) a landfill, we would like to pair the data taken at different points before and after implementation of
the treatment
...

1
...

Hence, H0: 10 mg/L, vs, HA:  > 10 mg/L
...
Two sample test: In Table1, cases 2 and 3 are illustrations of two sample, one tailed tests
...

Hence, H0: 1  2 , vs, HA: 1 < 2
...
e
...
Hence the test statistic is tested for occurrence
within either of the two critical regions on the two extremes of the distribution
...
One sample test: For the lake example we need to know if the mean concentration of the lake is the
same as or different from a specified value of 10 mg/L
...

2
...
In case 1 we
want to test whether the population mean of the first sample (1) is the same as or different from the
mean of the second sample (2)
...

Given the same level of significance the two tailed test is more conservative, i
...
, it is more rigorous than the
one-tailed test because the rejection point is farther out in the tail
...


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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1
Identify the null hypothesis H0 and the alternate hypothesis HA
...
The value should be small, usually less than 10%
...


3
Select the test statistic and determine its value from the sample data
...
Remember that a t statistic is usually
appropriate for a small number of samples; for larger number of samples, a z
statistic can work well if data are normally distributed
...


5
Make a decision
...


Conclude that there is not enough evidence to reject H0
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
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Uni
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Ed
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1: Psychological Test: (a) Types and its uses (b) General Information about Construction Procedure
(A) Types & Uses
Psychological tests can be grouped into several broad categories
...
Achievement tests measure what a person has learned
...
Intelligence
tests measure verbal and/or nonverbal skills related to academic success
...

Psychological tests are usually administered and interpreted by a psychologist because studies in
psychopathology, along with academic courses and supervision in psychological testing, are an integral part
of the doctoral degree in clinical psychology
...
Academic courses and supervision in
psychological testing are usually not a part of a psychiatrist's medical training, so most psychiatrists can
ethically administer only some specific clinical tests that are straight-forward check-lists of symptoms
...
Therefore you will
often find individuals offering to do all kinds of psychological testing—often on the Internet—even when
they lack the training to administer and interpret such tests
...
Achievement and aptitude tests are usually seen in educational or employment settings, and they
attempt to measure either how much you know about a certain topic (i
...
, your achieved knowledge), such as
mathematics or spelling, or how much of a capacity you have (i
...
, your aptitude) to master material in a
particular area, such as mechanical relationships
...
Or, as
Alfred Whitehead said about intelligence, “it enables the individual to profit by error without being
slaughtered by it
...
The trick is to design a test that can
actually be culture-free; most intelligence tests fail in this area to some extent for one reason or another
...
Neuropsychological tests attempt to measure deficits in cognitive functioning (i
...
, your ability to think,
speak, reason, etc
...

3
...
The
logic here is that if the things that interest you in life match up with, say, the things that interest most school
teachers, then you might make a good school teacher yourself
...
Personality tests attempt to measure your basic personality style and are most used in research or
forensic settings to help with clinical diagnoses
...

Personality tests are either objective or projective
...
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true or false)
...
Although many objective tests ask general questions about preferences and behaviours,
situational tests solicit responses to specific scenarios
...
Its
hundreds of true-false items cover a broad range of behaviours
...

Projective Techniques
Projective personality tests use ambiguouis stimuli into which hte test take presumably projects meaning
...

a
...

To ensure reliability, projective tests must be accompanied by a specific set of scoring criteria
...

Two lading projective tests are the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)
...
The Rorschach Test
In the Rorschach, individuals are asked to describe in detail their impressions of a series of inkblots
...

c
...
TAT analysis traditionally focuses
on the role played by the main character in each story
...
Specific clinical tests attempt to measure specific clinical matters, such as your current level of anxiety or
depression
...
Detection of specific Behavior
Psychological test is used to measure and to detect the abilities of a person
...
Individual Differences
A psychological test is used to measure the individual differences, that is different between abilities of
different persons and the performance of the same person at different time
...
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To diagnose by the Psychological Test
The psychological tests are usually used in clinical psychology
...
So tests are used in mental hospitals and coaching and guidance centers for the
assessment and diagnose of mental disorders
...

4
...

Methods of Legal Classification
Selection
The person who express certain level of performance on a test are selected and others are rejected
...

Certification
At the end of certain training program a test is used to recomended that the objectives of training program
has been aciehved and the person has the acquired the desired skill to perform in the relevant field
...

5
...

6
...
This function is
usually perform by an achievement test
...
Scientific Inquiry or Research
Some experts use tests for research purpose which provide information about the mental level and
personality of the subject
...
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Military Selection
A closely related application of psychological testing is to be found in the selection and classification of
military personal
...
Subsequently
research on test development has been containing on a large scale in all brands of the normed services
...
Industry
In industry and business tests are helpful in selection and classifying personal for placement in jobs that
range from the simpler semiskilled to the highly skilled, from the selection of filling clerks and sales-person
to top management for any of these position, however test results are only one source of information ,
though an important one
...
In January 2010, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(SIOP) announced that, as a result of a membership vote, it would retain its name and not change it to the
Society for Organizational Psychology (TSOP) to eliminate the word "Industrial"
...
An I-O psychologist researches and identifies how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through
hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems
...

Common research and practice areas for I-O psychologists include:



























Job performance
Job analysis
Personnel recruitment and selection
Performance appraisal/management
Individual assessment (knowledge, skills, and ability testing, personality assessment, work sample
tests, assessment centers)
Psychometrics
Compensation
Training and training evaluation/Development
Employment law
Work motivation
Job attitudes (e
...
, job satisfaction, commitment, organizational citizenship, and retaliation)
Occupational health and safety
Work/life balance
Human factors and decision making
Organizational culture/climate
Organizational surveys
Leadership and executive coaching
Ethics
Diversity
Job design
Human resources
Organizational development (OD)
Organizational research methods
Technology in the workplace
Group/team performance
Employ safety and health

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Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

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I-O psychologists are trained in the “scientist-practitioner” model
...
They use what they have
learned in applied settings to help clients address workplace needs
...
They also work within organizations, often as part of a human
resources department where they coordinate hiring and organizational development initiatives from an
evidence-based perspective
...
Industrial psychology is able to provide this structure by
evaluating employee behavior for the good of the company
...

Essentially, industrial psychologists study the behavior of employees in a work setting
...
Because the workplace is a social system, the application of industrial psychology is
useful in understanding its complexity
...
Education
Psychological tests especially those of general intelligence and of specific aptitudes have very extensive use
in educational classification, selection and planing from the 1st grade (and sometimes earlier) through the
university
...

"Now at present schools are among the largest test users"
...

Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups
such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities
...
This distinction is however not made in the UK,
where the generic term for practitioners is "educational psychologist
...
It is
informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship
between medicine and biology
...
Educational psychology both draws
from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences
...

11
...

Another areas are JAILS, CORRECTIONAL CENTERS and TRAINING INSTITUTIONS etc
...
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Psychological tests can be created that measure -Abilities, such as musical skill, writing skill, intelligence, or reading comprehension
...

2) Decide how you want to measure the construct you selected
...
For instances, if you want to determine how aggressive a person is, the best measure
would be to provide a frustrating situation, and see whether the person reacts aggressively
...

A number of other factors need to be considered
...

4) Once you've made decisions about the factors above, you can begin creating your test items
...
If you are measuring a personality trait or emotional state, then the items should be
consistent with a theory or agreed upon description of what you are measuring
...

5) After generating items , it often makes sense to have experts rate the quality of the items, and to retain
only the items with the highest ratings
...
If your items measure
depression, the experts should be mental health professionals
...

6) Your test is then ready to be tested on a sample of people
...
After you administer your test to a sample of
people:
-Determine the correlation between each item and the sum of the other items
...
Eliminate items that do not correlate well with the rest of their scale
...
If almost everyone agrees with an item or gets the correct
answer, it is not a useful item
...
You should
calculate coefficient alpha
...
Alpha has a
theoretical maximum of +1
...
A good test alpha is greater than
...

7) The final test should be cross-validated on a new sample
...

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Page 29 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
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(2011-12) Semester 1

For instance, a test of math skill should yield higher scores for students with higher math grades
...

-Factor analysis can be used to demonstrate that the test subscales group together (inter-correlate) in the
way that theory would predict
...
You can calculate the mean
(average) score for test-takers, and calculate the standard deviation to determine how spread out the scores
are around the mean
...

If your test has subscales, you will find the mean and standard deviation for each subscale
...
Many tests have norms
according to gender, ethnic group, and age
...
2: Questionnaire: (a) types, format and basic guidelines for constructing questions and
questionnaire, (b) advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents
...
The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton
...
However, such standardized answers may frustrate users
...

Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical
...


(A) Types, Format and basic guidelines for constructing questions and questionnaire:
Types of Questionnaire:
There are basically two types of questionnaire viz
...

1
...
The replies
may give important insights but they are very difficult to analyze in any systematic or statistical way
...
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This method is better to find opinions and general experiences of the respondents
...
They are also useful for exploring the solutions for a problem or a process
...
This type of questionnaire provide ample opportunity for the respondents to discuss the reasons for their
ideas
...
This type of questionnaire bring out the creativity of the user
...
Closed Ended Questionnaire:
A Closed ended questionnaire is useful for elaborating factual information
...
Each question will have a clear purpose and would be posed in an unambiguous way, allowing
the respondents to give a definite answer
...
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Open Format Questions
Open format questions are those questions that give your audience an opportunity to express their opinions
...
By including open format questions in your questionnaire, you can get true,
insightful and even unexpected suggestions
...
An ideal questionnaire would include an open format question at the end of the questionnaire that
would ask the respondent about suggestions for changes or improvements
...
Closed Format Questions
Closed format questions are questions that include multiple choice answers
...
These multiple choices could either be in even numbers or in
odd numbers
...
Preliminary analysis can also be performed with ease
...
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This can enable you to efficiently track
opinion over time
...
Leading Questions
Leading questions are questions that force your audience for a particular type of answer
...
An example of a leading question would be a question that
would have choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb, excellent etc
...

Example of Leading Format Question

4
...
These questions can help you grasp what are the things that hold importance to your
respondents
...

Example of Importance Format Question

5
...

Likert questions can also help you assess how your customers feel towards a certain issue, product or
service
...
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Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions are simple questions that ask respondents to just answer yes or no
...

Example of Dichotomous Format Question

7
...
The respondent is asked to mark his/her
responses between the two opposite ends of the scale
...
Rating Scale Questions
In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges from poor to
good
...


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of Education (Sau
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Page 34 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

Example of Rating Scale Format Question

9
...
These
questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements they want to be
addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future
...

This column concentrates on 15 guidelines for better survey design
...
They are easy to forget, however,
because they are so simple
...

Remember, responding to a survey should be an interesting, stress-free experience
...

Think about the order and layout of the survey as if you had to fill it out
...
For now, simply keep the following differences in mind
...
In
other words, the questionnaire not only has to motivate recipients in some way through its importance,
appearance and questions, but be easy enough to complete to minimize fatigue, boredom or confusion
...
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Additionally, questions must flow in such a way that the interest
of the respondent, who cannot see the survey document, is kept up
...
The first several questions should:
o

be easy for respondents to understand

o

be important to the study's purpose

o

engage the attention and interest of your respondent

Do not begin with an open-ended question or one which respondents might feel has a "right"
answer
...
It is important to get your respondent interested in the survey at the very beginning
...
If the topic is of low importance to respondents, start with specific
questions
...

3
...

4
...

5
...
This helps avoid alienating, taxing or in other ways worrying
participants
...
Consider lists of similar items carefully
...
The first items on a list
such as this usually get treated differently by respondents than the last items do
...

There are several ways to minimize position bias in a self-administered survey
...
This
way is often impractical, however, because of the high cost involved in printing several different
versions of your questionnaire
...
This reduces the likelihood that respondents will see the first items as most important
...

7
...
There are at least two
reasons for this
...

Second, it is better to keep respondents' minds on the purpose of the survey at the beginning,
while you have their attention
...

8
...
For example "If the answer to question 3 is 'None of the Above,' skip to question 6
...


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of Education (Sau
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Page 36 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

General guidelines for questionnaire layout
1
...
If your survey
has multiple pages, it should be bound in a booklet so that pages cannot get mixed up
...

2
...
If
you are using scannable forms, where bubbles need to be filled in completely and with a specific
writing utensil such as a number 2 pencil, make sure the instructions are clear and easy to find
...
Number your questions clearly
...

4
...
Also, mention any incentive for completing the survey, such as a drawing
entry, the opportunity to have a copy of the results and so on
...
If you are conducting a telephone survey, do NOT have the interviewer say "How are you?" in the
introduction
...
Keep the
introduction short, polite and to the point
...

6
...
Put interviewer instructions in UPPER
CASE, color or italics
...
Leave plenty of room for respondents to write answers to open-ended questions
...

(B) Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
Advantages of Questionnaire:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

In an interview, the analyst usually knows the user staff by name, job function or other identification
...

5
...
Respondents have time to
think about the questions, refer to documents and documentation and do calculations to provide more
accurate data
...
The number of respondents is often low
...
All the questions given in the questionnaire are usually not answered completely, and there is no
immediate opportunity to clarify a vague or incomplete answer to any question
...
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It is also not possible for the system analyst to observe and analyze the respondents body language
...
Lack of direct contact may mean that questions are interpreted in different ways
...
Good questionnaire are difficult to prepare
...
Cost of developing and distributing questionnaire is also very high
...
3: Interview: (a) types of interview such as individual & group and structured & unstructured, (b)
construction of interview / interview schedule
(A) Types of Interviews:
Analyst uses the interview to collect information from individuals or from groups
...
Some analyst always prefer the interview method compare to other
fact-finding techniques, it is not always best that to collect the data about the application
...

In this method respondents and system analyst converse during the interview
...
This method is frequently the best source of qualitative information
...
It
allows the analyst to discover area of misunderstanding, unrealistic expectations, and even indication of
resistance to the proposed system
...
Unstructured interviews use a
questions and answers format when the analyst wants to get the general information about the system
...

Structured Interview

Unstructured Interview

Advantages:

Advantages:

Easy to administer and evaluate

Interviewers can pursue the areas those
arise at the time of interview
...


of

Limited interview training needed
...

Disadvantages:

It may waste the time of both While taking
the interview, the biases may appear
...

is of no use
...

facts
...
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...


The warm-up: This section has the objective of creating an atmosphere conducive to an open an freeflowing discussion
...
g
...
Each
group member is then asked to introduce their neighbour to the rest of the group
...
For example, a
municipal authority considering establishing a new fruit and vegetable wholesale market positioned outside
a congested city centre would ultimately wish to determine what innovative facilities might attract traders to
use the new market which is less convenient to them in terms of location
...
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...
The emphasis is upon a
description of current behaviour and attitudes
...

Exploration of discussion points: In this phase the discussion moves on to the participants' attitudes,
opinions and experiences of existing products, services (or in this case facilities) and on to what they like
and dislike about those products/services
...

Core discussion: This part of the group discussion focuses directly upon the principal purpose of the
research
...
The wholesale traders, for instance, would be guided towards discussing periurban wholesale markets and the kinds of facilities which might attract traders like themselves
...

Summary: The final phase of the focus groups session allows participants to reflect upon the foregoing
discussion and to add any views or information on the topic that they may have previously forgotten or
otherwise have omitted
...

5
...
In the social sciences, common examples are the Likert scale and 1-10 rating scales in which a
person selects the number which is considered to reflect the perceived quality of a product
...

Types of Rating Scales
All the rating scales can be classified into one of the following four classifications:1
...
Numbers indicate the relative position of items, but not
the magnitude of difference
...

Response options:
1
...
Disagree
3
...
Strongly agree
2
...
Numbers indicate the magnitude of difference between
items, but there is no absolute zero point
...

3
...
Numbers indicate magnitude of difference and there is a
fixed zero point
...
Examples include age, income, price, costs, sales revenue,
sales volume and market share
...
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In terms of Classical test theory, more than one question is required to obtain an index of
internal reliability such as Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach, 1951), which is a basic criterion for assessing the
effectiveness of a rating scale and, more generally, a psychometric instrument
...
Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and
education to measure "unmeasurable" constructs like authoritarianism and self esteem
...
And, it
attempts to do one of the most difficult of research tasks -- measure abstract concepts
...
The basic idea of scaling is described in General Issues
in Scaling, including the important distinction between a scale and a response format
...
The unidimensional scaling
methods were developed in the first half of the twentieth century and are generally named after their
inventor
...
Although these techniques are not considered here, you may want to look at the
method of concept mapping that relies on that approach to see the power of these multivariate methods
...
S
...
He said:
Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers
according to a rule
...
The figure shows an example
...
To scale these
statements, we have to assign numbers to them
...
And what does "according to a rule" mean? If you look at the statements, you can see that as you read
down, the attitude towards immigration becomes more restrictive -- if a person agrees with a statement on
the list, it's likely that they will also agree with all of the statements higher on the list
...
So what is scaling? It's how we get numbers that can be meaningfully assigned to
objects -- it's a set of procedures
...


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of Education (Sau
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Page 41 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

But first, I have to clear up one of my pet peeves
...
A response scale is the way you collect responses from people on an instrument
...
Or, you might use an interval
response scale like a 1-to-5 or 1-to-7 rating
...
As you will see, scaling involves procedures that you do
independent of the respondent so that you can come up with a numerical value for the object
...
But just assigning a 1-to-5 response scale for an item is not scaling!
The differences are illustrated in the table below
...
We might want to know whether the
construct or concept is a single dimensional or multidimensional one (more about dimensionality later)
...
We want to know what dimensions underlie a set
of ratings
...
But probably the most
common reason for doing scaling is for scoring purposes
...

For the figure above, we would like to be able to give a single number that describes a person's attitudes
towards immigration, for example
...
Most scales that we develop have only a few dimensions
...
If we want to measure a construct, we have to
decide whether the construct can be measured well with
one number line or whether it may need more
...
We can measure the concept of height
very well with only a single number line (e
...
, a ruler)
...
Thirst might also bee considered a
unidimensional concept -- you are either more or less
thirsty at any given time
...
But what about a concept
like self esteem? If you think you can measure a person's self esteem well with a single ruler that goes from
low to high, then you probably have a unidimensional construct
...
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In this type of two-dimensional
model, a person can be said to possess two types of achievement
...
For
others, it will be the reverse
...
In other words, in order to
describe achievement you would need to locate a person as a
point in two dimensional (x,y) space
...
Put in other terms, any objects can be distinguished or
differentiated from each other along three dimensions
...
They called this general theory
of meaning the semantic differential
...
For instance, think of the idea
of "ballet
...
On the other hand, think about
the concept of a "book" like a novel
...

Now, think of the idea of "going to the dentist
...
The theorists who came up with
the idea of the semantic differential thought that the meaning of any concepts could be described well by
rating the concept on these three dimensions
...

Unidimensional or Multidimensional?
What are the advantages of using a unidimensional model? Unidimensional concepts are generally easier to
understand
...
You're either taller or shorter, heavier or lighter
...
But the best reason to use unidimensional scaling is because you
believe the concept you are measuring really is unidimensional in reality
...
But, if the concept you are studying is in
fact multidimensional in nature, a unidimensional scale or number line won't describe it well
...
But how do you score someone who is a high math achiever and terrible
verbally, or vice versa? A unidimensional scale can't capture that type of achievement
...
They are similar in that they each measure
the concept of interest on a number line
...
The three methods are Thurstone or Equal-Appearing Interval Scaling, Likert or
"Summative" Scaling, and Guttman or "Cumulative" Scaling
...
Varia

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...
Ed
...
5: Measurement of Attitude: Thurstone and Likert technique
ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT
THURSTONE SCALE:
In psychology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique for measuring an attitude
...
It is made
up of statements about a particular issue, and each statement has a numerical value indicating how favorable
or unfavorable it is judged to be
...

The Thurstone attitude measurement procedure is generally more consistent with empirical
characteristics of disagree-agree responses, It is constructed by the method of equal-appearing intervals, in
which a large pool of candidate statements about an attitude object, ranging from strongly negative
(Abortion is never justified) through neutral (There are arguments both for and against abortion) to strongly
positive (Abortion is every woman's right), are sorted by a group of judges into eleven categories
...
Items that yield the highest level of agreement among the judges as to their scale
position, and that collectively represent an adequate range of contents and scale positions, are then selected
for the final scale
...
It is also called an equal-appearing interval
scale
...
He actually invented three different
methods for developing a unidimensional scale: the method of equal-appearing intervals; the method of
successive intervals; and, the method of paired comparisons
...

GUTTMAN SCALE
A type of attitude scale which is named after the US (later Israeli) psychologist Louis H
...
The items of which can be arranged in a hierarchical order such that agreement with any particular item
implies probable agreement with all those below it in the hierarchy, as would apply to the following (nonattitudinal) items: I am over 5 feet tall; I am over 5 feet 6 inches tall; I am over 6 feet tall; I am over 6 feet 6
inches tall
...
90, implying that the scale is unidimensional,
measuring only one major attitude variable
...
A simple example of a Guttman scale is a social distance scale]
In statistical surveys conducted by means of structured interviews or questionnaires, a subset of the survey
items having binary (e
...
, YES or NO) answers forms a Guttman scale if they can be ranked in some order
so that, for a rational respondent, the response pattern can be captured by a single index on that ordered
scale
...
For example, a series of items could be
(1) "I am willing to be near ice cream"; (2) "I am willing to smell ice cream"; (3) "I am willing to eat ice
cream"; and (4) "I love to eat ice cream"
...

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of Education (Sau
...
Campus)

Page 44 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

The concept of Guttman scale likewise applies to series of items in other kinds of tests, such as achievement
tests, that have binary outcomes
...
The assumption is if the examinee can
successfully answer items of that difficulty (e
...
, summing two 3-digit numbers), s/he would be able to
answer the earlier questions (e
...
, summing two 2-digit numbers)
...

By designing surveys and tests such that they contain Guttman scales, researchers can simplify the analysis
of the outcome of surveys, and increase the robustness
...
The Guttman scale is
used mostly when researchers want to design short questionnaires with good discriminating ability
...

Guttman scaling is also sometimes known as cumulative scaling or scalogram analysis
...
What does
that mean? Essentially, we would like a set of items or statements so that a respondent who agrees with any
specific question in the list will also agree with all previous questions
...
For example,
imagine a ten-item cumulative scale
...
If the respondent scores an eight, it should mean they agreed with the first eight
...
In practice, we would seldom expect to
find this cumulative pattern perfectly
...

LIKERT SCALE
The Likert scale was introduced as a scale of attitudes in Likert's "A Technique for the Measurement of
Attitudes,” It was a bipolar scale running from one extreme through a neutral point to the opposite extreme
...
Subjects are asked to express agreement or
disagreement of a five-point scale
...

Thus a total numerical value can be calculated from all the responses
...
When responding to a Likert questionnaire item, respondents specify their level of
agreement to a statement
...

An important distinction must be made between a Likert Scale and a Likert item
...
Because Likert items are often accompanied by a visual analog scale
(e
...
, a horizontal line, on which a subject indicates his or her response by circling or checking tick-marks),
the items are sometimes called scales themselves
...

A Likert item is simply a statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate according to any kind of
subjective or objective criteria; generally the level of agreement or disagreement is measured
...

The format of a typical five-level Likert item is:
1
...

3
...

5
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
...
Uni
...
Ed
...

Sometimes a four-point scale is used; this is a forced choice method since the middle option of "Neither
agree nor disagree" is not available
...
Respondents may avoid using extreme
response categories (central tendency bias); agree with statements as presented (acquiescence bias); or try to
portray themselves or their organization in a more favorable light (social desirability bias)
...

Scoring and analysis
After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in some cases item responses
may be summed to create a score for a group of items
...

Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or whether they should be
considered merely ordered-categorical data is the subject of disagreement
...
On the other hand, often (as in the example above) the wording of
response levels clearly implies a symmetry of response levels about a middle category; at the very least, such
an item would fall between ordinal- and interval-level measurement; to treat it as merely ordinal would lose
information
...

When treated as ordinal data, Likert responses can be collated into bar charts, central tendency summarised
by the median or the mode (but not the mean), dispersion summarised by the range across quartiles (but not
the standard deviation), or analyzed using non-parametric tests, e
...
Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney test,
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, or Kruskal-Wallis test
...
If the summed responses fulfils these assumptions, parametric
statistical tests such as the analysis of variance can be applied
...
[Clarify: More than 5 Likert questions or Likert questions of more than 5
levels]
Data from Likert scales are sometimes reduced to the nominal level by combining all agree and disagree
responses into two categories of "accept" and "reject"
...
6: Concept of some other tools: format and use of (a) Checklist, (b) Opinionnaire (c) Observation
Schedule
(A) Checklist:
A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for potential limits of
human memory and attention
...
A basic
example is the "to do list
...

Applications




Aviation checklists aid in aviation safety to ensure that critical items are not forgotten
use in medical practice to ensure that clinical practice guidelines are followed
...
Atul Gawande
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
...
Uni
...
Ed
...

often used in industry in operations procedures
...
An example is
the open-source litigation checklist
...

an ornithological checklist, a list of birds with standardized names that helps ornithologists
communicate with the public without the use of scientific names in Latin
...
Randomly inserted in packs, checklist cards
provide information on the contents of sports card set
...
A small
tick or checkmark is drawn in the box after the item has been completed
...
Aviation checklists generally consist of a system and an action
divided by a dashed line, and lack a checkbox as they are often read aloud and are usually intended to be
reused
...

Example:

Fears and Phobias Opinionnaire
Read each of the following statements
...
We will discuss these in class
...
(Get the questionnaire from your classroom
teacher)
...
People basically enjoy being afraid
...
Being afraid is therapeutic and cathartic
...
Halloween is one of my favorite holidays
...
A little fear goes a long way
...
The bloodier and gorier a movie is, the more I like it
...
People with stage fright are faking it trying to get more attention
...
People with vivid imaginations should not read scary books or go to scary movies
...
The only thing we have to fear is fear itself
...
Fear is construed as the flipside of pleasure in many instances
...
I believe in haunted houses and in ghosts
...
More people are afraid of critters and snakes than of the unknown
...
The thought of UFOs frightens me
...
Fatal attractions and stalkers are more frightening than snakes and critters
...
Varia

Roll No: 38

Dept
...
Uni
...

15
...

17
...

19
...

21
...

23
...

25
...
Ed
...

One's imagination turns normal fears into terror or into phobias
...

"The Blair Witch Project" was not a scary movie
...

There will never be any new ideas for scary movies, only "revisiting" the old ideas in new ways
...

I think reading a scary book is more frightening than seeing a scary movie
...

Scary movies cause nightmares
...

I loved to read R
...
Stine when I was small
...

1
...
It carefully specifies beforehand the categories of behaviors or
events under scrutiny and under what circumstances they should be assigned to those
categories
...

Types
o

Observation schedules are utilized primarily in the fields of education, psychology, speech
and language therapy, learning and behavioral therapy and market research
...
Types of
observation schedules include event sampling, time sampling, interval recording, rating
scales and duration recording
...
Other notable examples include the Modified-Classroom Observation
Schedule to Measure Intentional Communication (M-COSMIC) and the Flanders Interaction
Analysis Categories
...
It was created by Catherine Lord, Ph
...
, Michael Rutter, M
...
, FRS, Pamela C
...
D
...
D
...
The protocol consists of a series of structured and semi-structured tasks that involve
social interaction between the examiner and the subject
...
Categorized observations
are subsequently combined to produce quantitative scores for analysis
...
The Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), a companion
instrument, is a structured interview conducted with the parents of the referred individual and covers the
Prepared by: Vishal S
...
of Education (Sau
...
Campus)

Page 48 of 49

Core Course Paper 1: Methodology of Educational Research

Saurashtra University: M
...
(2011-12) Semester 1

subject's full developmental history
...

Method
The ADOS generally takes from 30 to 60 minutes to administer
...
Each subject is administered activities from just one of the four modules
...
The only
developmental level not served by the ADOS is that for adolescents and adults who are nonverbal
...
It will include
improved algorithms for Modules 1 to 3 and a new Toddler Module that facilitates assessment in children
ages 12 to 20 months
...
Subjects that do use phrase speech but do
not speak fluently are administered Module 2
...
Module 3 is for younger subjects who are verbally fluent and Module 4 is used with
adolescents and adults who are verbally fluent
...
Modules 3 or 4 can include reciprocal play and communication,
exhibition of empathy or comments on others' emotions
...
7: Standardization of research tool: Reliability, Validity and Norms
(refer chapter 2 of Elective Subject: Psychological Testing)

Prepared by: Vishal S
...
of Education (Sau
...
Campus)

Page 49 of 49



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