Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

Basics of Research
Methodology

Book List:
1
...
R
...
Research Methodology
By Ranjit Kuamr
3
...
Nurul Islam
4
...
Prabhat Pandey

1

1
...

According to Redman and Mori, “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
...
A particular event is seldom the result
of a one-to-one relationship
...
Most outcomes are a sequel to
the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors
...
In the study of
causation, the establishment of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences,
it is extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link
...
This can be achieved to a
large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory
...
Therefore, in the social sciences, as one cannot control external factors,
one attempts to quantify their impact
...
Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and the
social sciences and within the social sciences
...
The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way
...

Valid and verifiable: This concept implies that whatever one concludes on the basis of one’s findings in correct
and can be verified by one and others
...

Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry
...
The process adopted and the
procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny
...
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet
...

2
...

4
...

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object
in view are known as descriptive research studies)
...

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis testing
research studies)
...
R
...
On the basis of nature of information:
1
...

2
...


2

B
...
Basic/Fundamental/Pure/Theoretical research: Its utility is universal
...
Experimental or applied research: Its utility is limited
...
On the basis of approach of research:
1
...

2
...

D
...
Philosophical research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the vision of others
on the content of research
...
Historical research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and deals with past events
...
Survey research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature
...

Discretional research
ii
...

Exploratory research
4
...

5
...
It may be qualitative as well as quantitative in
nature depending upon the content
...
Philosophically:
• Empirical: Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory
...
We can also call it as experimental type of research
...
He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis
...
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought
that certain variables affect other variables in some way
...

Health research mainly follows the empirical approach, i
...
it is based upon observation and
experience more than upon theory and abstraction
...

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity
...
For instance, when we are interested in investigating
the reasons for human behavior i
...
why people think or do certain things
...
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones
...
Functionally:
• Basic research: Basic research is usually considered to involve a search for knowledge without a
defined goal of utility or specific purpose
...

• Applied research: Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization
...

C
...

•

Step I: Formulating a research problem
...

•
•
•
•

Step II: Conceptualising a research design
...

Step IV: Selecting a sample
...


Phase III: Conducting a research study
...

Step VII: Processing and displaying data
...

[Research Methodology
By Ranjit Kumar]

Research approaches: There are two approaches:
A
...
It is subdivided into:
a
...
This usually means survey research where
a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is
then inferred that the population has the same characteristics
...
Experimental approach: Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables
...
Simulation approach: Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated
...
The term simulation in
the context of business and social sciences applications refers to the operation of a numerical model
that represents the structure of a dynamic process
...

Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions
...
Qualitative approach: Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behavior
...
Such
an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis
...


Nice to know:
Criteria of good research:
1
...

3
...

5
...


The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used
...

The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible
...

The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate
...

Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the
data provide an adequate basis
...


Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research
and is a person of integrity
...


2
...
Systematic characteristic of the research does not
rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing intuition in arriving at conclusions
...
Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise
...


Distinction between Method and Methodology
1
...

3
...

5
...

Research methods involve the tasks of
conducting experiments, tests, surveys and the
like utilizing the knowledge and skills learned
through research methodology
...


1
...

3
...


Research methods are the end of any scientific
or non-scientific research
...


Methodology
Research methodology seeks to answer: how
did the researcher complete his study?
Methodology explains and justifies the
techniques and tools by which one may proceed
with ones’ research
...

Research methodology ensures the employment
of the correct procedures to arrive at a solution
of the problems
...


Difference between qualitative and quantitative research:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


9
...
Communication
of findings

Quantitative research
Rationalism: The human beings achieve
knowledge because of their capacity to
reason
...

Emphasis on some of either measurement
or classification of variables
Emphasis on greater sample size
Narrows focus in terms of extent of enquiry,
but assembles required information from a
greater number of respondents
Reliability and objectivity (value-free)
Explains prevalence, incidence, extent,
nature of issues, opinions and attitude;
discovers regularities and formulates
theories
Subjects
variables
to
frequency
distributions, cross-tabulations or other
statistical procedures
Organization is more analytical in nature;
drawing inferences and conclusions, and

5

Qualitative research
Empiricism: The only knowledge that
human beings acquire is from sensory
experiences
...

Emphasis on description of variables
Fewer cases
Covers multiple issues but assembles
required
information
from
fewer
respondents
Authenticity but does not claim to be
value-free
Explores
experiences,
meanings,
perceptions and feelings
Subjects
responses,
narratives
or
observational data to identification of
themes and describes these
Organization is more descriptive and
narrative in nature

testing magnitude
relationship
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...


Basic research
Basic research is sponsored by an agency or
organization committed to the general
advancement of knowledge
...

Studies related to the basic research rely on the
established reputations of the researchers and
are totally under their control
...

The conduct of research is based on ‘good faith’
between the funding agency and researcher
...

Basic research tends to extend an identifiable
scholarly discipline
...

Decision rules relate to theoretically-based tests
of statistical significance
...
Research reports are targeted to
specialized researchers in the same field
...
The driving goal is to contribute to
theoretical knowledge
...
Success comes when results appear
scholarly journal and have an impact on
in the scientific community
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

Applied research results become the property of
the sponsor
...

Budget accountability is directly related to the
sponsor and related to agreed terms of reference,
time frames and methodologies
...

Applied
research
includes
applied
recommendations or suggestions for action
leading to implementation
...


By its nature, applied research tends to be
interdisciplinary
...
Contract research frequently analyzes the
consequences of alternative policy options
...
Decision rules relate to predetermined
conventions and agreements between the
sponsor and the researcher
...
Research reports are intended to be read and
understood and lay persons
...
The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or
use of results
...
Success comes when results are used by sponsor
or client in decision making
...

Research design: A research design is one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
...
A
research design depends on the purpose and nature of research problem
...
e
...
A research design
provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data
...


6

Features of a good research design:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...

The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any
The objective of the problem to be studied
...

The availability of time and money for the research work
...

The design should be accurate with minimum bias in case of accurate description
...

Qualitative: When data deals with words
...


Types of research design:
1
...

3
...

5
...
But all research questions should be focused, specific, appropriately complex, and
relevant to a social or scholarly issue
...
It
is researchable through qualitative and quantitative data
collection
...
By targeting just
one aspect of the problem and using more specific terms,
the second question offers a clear path to finding an
answer
...
The
second question is much more researchable
...

It is generally not feasible for academic research to answer
broad questions about “what should be done”
...


•

Has there been an increase in homelessness in
San Francisco in the past ten years?

•

How have economic, political and social factors
affected patterns of homelessness in San
Francisco over the past ten years?

•

What factors led to women gaining the right to
vote in the UK in 1918?

•

How did Irish women perceive and relate to the
British women’s suffrage movement?

•

How can sexual health services and LGBT
support services in district X be improved?

•

How can sexual health clinics in district X
develop their services and communications to be
more LGBT-inclusive?

•

Where do the majority of immigrants to
Germany come from?

•

What are the similarities and differences in the
experiences of recent Turkish, Polish and Syrian
immigrants in Berlin?

•

How is race represented in Shakespeare’s Othello?

•

How
have
modern
adaptations
of
Shakespeare’s Othello dealt with the theme of
racism through casting, staging and allusion to
contemporary events?

•

How can drunk driving be prevented?

•

What effect do different legal approaches have on
the number of people who drive after drinking in
European countries?

8

The first question is too simple: it can be answered with a
simple yes or no
...


The first question is too broad and not very original
...
The second
question identifies an underexplored aspect of the topic
that requires investigation and discussion of
various primary and secondary sources to answer
...
Even though
the two issues are related, it’s not clear how the research
will bring them together
...

The first question is too simple, asking for a
straightforward fact that can be easily found online
...


The first question is not original or relevant — it has been
answered so many times that it would be very difficult to
contribute anything new
...

The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is
not focused or researchable
...
For a smaller research project or
thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the
effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two
countries
...
Variable: Independent, Dependent,
Intervening and Confounding Variables
Variables: Whether we accept it or not, we all make value judgements constantly in our daily lives: ‘this food is
excellent’; ‘I could not sleep well last night’; ‘I do not like this’; and ‘I think this is wonderful’
...
Because these explain feelings or preferences, the basis on
which they are made may vary markedly from person to person
...
A particular food may be judged excellent by one person by awful by another, and something else could be
wonderful to one person but ugly to another
...
If you were to question them you will discover that
their judgement is based upon indicators and/or expectations that lead them to conclude and express a particular
opinion
...
In other words, a concept that can be measured is called a variable
...

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meanings vary markedly from individual to individual,
whereas variables are measurable, though, of course, with varying degrees of accuracy
...

Concepts are subjective impressions which, if measured as such would cause problems in comparing responses obtained
from different respondents
...
On the basis of casual relationship:
1
...

2
...

3
...
These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude
or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables
...


Intervening variable: Sometimes called the confounding variable; it links the independent and
dependent variables
...
The cause, or independent
variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an intervening variable
...
His/her aim is to explore
what happens to fertility when mortality declines
...
As such, there is no direct relationship between fertility and mortality
...
History has shown that
for a multiplicity of reasons, people have used one method or another to control their fertility, resulting in lower fertility
levels
...
The extent of the use of contraceptives is also affected by a number of other factors, for
example, attitudes towards contraception, level of education, socioeconomic status and age, religion, and provision
and quality of health services
...

In the above example, decline in mortality is assumed to be the cause of a reduction in fertility, hence the mortality
level is the independent variable and fertility is the dependent variable
...
A reduction in mortality (especially child mortality)
increases family size and an increase in family size creates a number of social, economic and psychological pressures
on families, which in turn create attitudes favourable to a smaller family size
...
If people do not adopt methods of contraception,
a change in mortality levels will not be reflected in fertility levels
...
The extent of the use of contraceptives determines the level of
the decline in fertility
...
As
mentioned earlier, in this causal model, the fertility level is the dependent variable, the extent of contraceptive use is
the intervening variable, the mortality level is the independent variable and the unmeasured variables such as attitudes,
education, age, religion, the quality of services, and so on, are all extraneous variables
...


10

B
...
Active variables: Those variables that can be manipulated, changed or controlled
...
Attribute variables: Those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled and that
reflect the characteristics of the study population, for example, age, gender, education and income
...
On the basis of unit of measurement:
1
...

They are of three types:
a
...

b
...


11

c
...


Polytomous variable: Can be divided into more than two categories
...

Continuous variables: Continuous variables are measured on either an interval or a ratio scale
...
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
...

Nominal: Indicates name only
...

Outcomes indicate no order or preference
...
Being male or female does not imply preference, order or priority
...
For example, level of education is expressed as illiterate,
primary, secondary etc
...
Pain level
of mild, moderate or severe indicates a low level of pain to a higher level as the level changes from mild to
severe
...

Interval: In this scale 0 does not mean absence of characteristics
...
For example, 00 C temperature does not mean that there is no temperature
...
Again, two rooms having temperature of 100 C and 150 C implies that the later
has 50 C higher temperature than the former
...
5 times hotter than
the former
...
Both interval and ratio between two figures are
meaningful
...
While comparing two sticks of 5 ft
and 10 ft, the difference of 5 ft implies that the later is 5 ft longer than the former and the ratio of 1:2 implies
that the later is twice longer than the former; these two expressions are meaningful
...
Multiplication and
division are not possible
...


12

3
...


2
...


4
...


Interest: It is the most important criterion in selecting a research problem
...
If one chooses a topic which does not greatly
interests him/her, it would become difficult to keep up the motivation to write
...
One has to remember that he/she needs to do most of the work
himself/herself
...

Relevance: We have to always choose a topic that suits our interest and profession
...
Of course, this will help us to sustain interest throughout
the research period
...
Sometimes,
during the research period, the study population might be adversely affected by some questions
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

Data gathering
Data processing and analysis
Implications and conclusions
Publish and communicate results

13

4
...
Literature reviews are
secondary sources and do not report new or original experimental work
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

10
...

12
...


It provides an up to date understanding of the subject and its significance to one’s practice
...

It provides comparisons for one’s own research findings
...

It helps to identify data sources that other researchers have used
...

It helps to develop alternative research projects
...

It helps to contribute to the field by moving research forward
...

It helps to demonstrate one’s understanding and also one’s ability to critically evaluate research in the field
...

It is an important showcase of one’s talents of –
• Understanding
• Interpretation
• Analysis
• Clarity to thought
• Synthesis and
• Development of argument
After reading one’s literature review, it should be clear to the reader that he/she has up to date awareness of
the relevant work of others and that the research question being asked is relevant
...
Primary sources: A primary source is anything that gives one direct evidence about the people, events or
phenomena that one is researching
...

Research field

Primary source

History

•
•
•
•

Letters and diaries
Photographs and video footage
Official documents and records
Physical objects

Art and literature

•
•
•

Novels and poems
Paintings and art installations
Films and performances

Communication
and social studies

•
•
•
•

Interview transcripts
Recordings of speeches
Newspapers and magazines
Social media posts

Law and politics

•
•

Court records
Legal texts

14

Sciences

•

Government documents

•
•

Empirical studies
Statistical d

B
...
Common examples include:
• Books, articles and documentaries: Synthesize information on a topic
...

• Encyclopedias and textbooks: Summarize information and ideas
...

Primary and secondary source examples
Primary source

Secondary source

Novel

Article analyzing the novel

Painting

Exhibition catalog explaining the painting

Letters and diaries written by a historical figure

Biography of the historical figure

Essay by a philosopher

Textbook summarizing the philosopher’s ideas

Photographs of a historical event

Documentary about the historical event

Government documents about a new policy

Newspaper article about the new policy

Music recordings

Academic book about the musical style

Results of an opinion poll

Blog post interpreting the results of the poll

Empirical study

Literature review that cites the study

Techniques of literature review: There are four steps in conducting a literature review:
1
...

3
...


Searching for the existing literature in one’s area of study
Reviewing the selected literature
Developing a theoretical framework
Developing a conceptual framework

They are discussed below:
1
...

3
...


To search literature effectively in one’s field of inquiry, it is imperative that he/she has at least some idea of
the broad subject area and of the problem he/she wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for his/her
research
...
There are three sources that one can use to
prepare a bibliography:
• Books
• Journals and
• Internet
Reviewing the selected literature: The next step is to start reading useful books and articles to pull together
themes and issues that are of relevance to one’s study
...
As one starts reading literature, he/she will
soon discover that the problem he/she wish to investigate has its roots in a number of theories that have been
developed from different perspectives
...
It
stems from the theoretical framework and usually focuses on the sections which become the basis of his/her
study
...

Referencing is a way of demonstrating that one has done that reading
...

Reference vs bibliography: The term reference and bibliography are often used synonymously, but there is a difference
in meaning between them
...

Bibliography is a list of everything one reads whether or not he/she referred specifically to it
...

Importance of referencing:
1
...

3
...

5
...


To acknowledge others’ works
...

To get recognition and authentication of the work
...

To trace the intellectual development of the ideas one presents
...


Harvard style of referencing:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Author’s name followed by its initials
Year of publication
Article title with single quotation mark followed by full stop
Name of journal in italic form
Volume followed by a comma
Issue no
...


Example:
•

Padda, J
...
Journal of writing studies 3 (2), 44 – 59
...


Has AN, Susin C, Albandar JM, et al
...
N Engl J Med 2008 Aug; 35(8):696 – 704
...
For example,
‘New England Journal of Medicine’ is cited as ‘N Engl J Med’
...
Formulation of Hypothesis, Statement of
Objectives
Research hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a logical supposition, a reasonable guess and
an educated prediction about the nature of relationship between two or more variables that we expect to happen in our
study
...

2
...

4
...

Students who experience test anxiety prior to an exam will get highest scores than students who do not
experience test anxiety
...

People with a high exposure to ultraviolet light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer than those who do
not have such exposure
...

2
...

4
...

6
...


Simple hypothesis
Complex hypothesis
Empirical hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
Logical hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis

1
...


2
...

Example: Overweight adults who – 1
...
Seek happiness are more likely than
other adults to 1
...
Feel a more regular sense of joy
...


Empirical hypothesis: An empirical hypothesis or working hypothesis comes to life when a theory is being
put to the test, using observation and experiment
...
It is actually going
through some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those independent variables
...

Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings
...


5
...
This is
something to attempt to disprove or discredit
...

Alternative hypothesis (denoted by H1): In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researcher will seek to
discover an alternative hypothesis
...


7
...

Logical hypothesis: A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence
...

Example: Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars
...

Statistical hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population
...
This is not practical
...


Formulation of hypothesis
Hypothesis: The word hypothesis consists of two words – Hypo + Thesis
...
‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem
...
Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be
verified empirically and based on some rationale
...

A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known about a phenomenon,
and it is employed as a basis for action in the search for new truth
...

Nature of hypothesis:
1
...

2
...
It is not merely mental
idea, but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification
...
It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables
...
Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future oriented
...

5
...

Functions of hypothesis:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


It is temporary solution of a problem connecting with some truth which enables an investigator to start his
research works
...

It may lead to formulate another hypothesis
...

Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively tested and accepted
or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose
...

It sensitizes the researcher so that he/she should work selectively and have very realistic approach to the
problem
...


Importance of hypothesis:
1
...
Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further investigation, hypothesis
serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively adopted generalization
...

3
...

5
...

7
...

9
...

11
...

13
...
Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory and investigation
...

Links together: According to Barr and Scates, ‘It serves the important function of linking together related facts
and information and organizing them into wholes’
...
V
...

Guiding light: A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the research work
...

It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the standpoint of problem at
hand
...

It is an indispensable research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem and the location of
empirical evidence that may solve the problem
...

It provides a framework for drawing conclusion
...


Forms of hypothesis:
1
...
It fails
to fit most definitions of hypothesis
...
There are cases of simple investigation
which can be adequately implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms
into acceptable or rejectable categories
...
Declarative statement: A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship
or difference between variables
...
It is merely a declaration of the
independent variables effect on the criterion variable
...
Directional hypothesis: A directional hypothesis connects an expected direction in the relationship or
difference between variables
...

If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the
others because it reveals two possible conditions
...
Secondly, researcher has examined the
variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated
outcome
...
Non directional hypothesis or Null hypothesis: This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion
that no relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables
...
It is a null directional form of hypothesis
...
A null hypothesis
tentatively states that on the basis of the evidence tested there is no difference
...
In this, the researcher has not to
anticipate or give the rational for the declaration or directional form
...
He/she may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research or findings
...
Null hypothesis means zero hypotheses
...
While research hypothesis is second step in the process of
reflective thinking
...
It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the researcher so much as the utility of the null
form as the best fitted to the logic of chance in statistical knowledge or science
...
e
...

Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis
...

Non directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the positive argument of the
findings or non-directional statement of the generalization
...
It assumes that
none or zero difference exists between the two population means or the treatments
...

2
...

The conceptual level: On the conceptual level, the researcher must define events in terms of in terms of
underlying community with other events
...

The formulation of a hypothesis very frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the
conceptual or abstract level
...

Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level and vice-versa
...
The process of making
conceptual contracts between operational program is called conceptualization or dimensionalization
...
Since these objectives inform a reader
of what one wants to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically
...
It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that one seeks to discover or establish
...

Example: Suppose one wants to know the status of chikungunya antibodies in suspected dengue patients
...

Specific objectives:
1
...


2
...


Characteristics of research objectives:
1
...

3
...

A well-ordered objective will be SMART i
...
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bound
...


20

6
...
A sample is a part of a target population, which is carefully selected to represent the population
...
Actually sampling frame is nothing but the correct
list of population
...

Sampling process: The sampling process comprises the following stage:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...

Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
...

Determining the sampling size
...

Sampling and data collection
...


Survey methods: A survey may be conducted by either of the following two methods:
1
...


Census method or Parametric method
...


They are discussed below:
1
...


Census method: It deals with the investigation of the entire population
...
This method provides more accurate and exact information as no unit is left out
...
It works with the
objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with minimum of cost, time and energy
and to set out of limits of accuracy of such estimates
...
It is more popular in research work
...
The term population or universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional one
...
But in Research Methodology,
population means characteristics of a specific group
...
one type of population distinguished by educational
researchers is called the target population
...

Advantages of sampling:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


It has a greater adaptability
...

It has high speed for generalization
...
G
...

This technique has great accuracy
...

It has a greater scope in the field of research
...


Disadvantages of sampling:
1
...

3
...


There is a scope of biasness (less accuracy)
...

Need of eligible researchers
...
e
...


21

5
...


Essentials of an ideal sample:
1
...

3
...


Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units
...

Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample
...


Characteristics of a good sample:
1
...

3
...

5
...


7
...

The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe
...

A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements
from the situation
...
It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not involve errors
...
The feature of a closely linked with true-representativeness
...
A
sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a good representative of the population
...


Types of sampling designs or Methods of sampling:
A
...
Random sampling / Simple random sampling
2
...
Stratified sampling
4
...
Purposive sampling
6
...
Multiple sampling or Double sampling
B
...
Incidental or Accidental sampling
2
...
Purposive sampling
4
...
Probability sampling: It is a method of sampling which gives the probability that a sample is representative of
population
...
Random sampling or simple random sampling: It is one in which each element of the population has
an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i
...
a sample selected by
randomization method is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple
randomization
...
Tossing a coin
b
...
Lottery method
d
...
Tippett’s table method
Advantages of randomization:
i
...

iii
...


It requires the minimum knowledge of randomization
...

It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose
...


22

Disadvantages of randomization:
i
...

iii
...


It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample
...

Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample
...
The
method requires the complete information about the population
...

Process of systemic sampling:
We decide the size of the sample
...
Thus, for this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any
systemic way
...

This is a simple method of selecting a sample
...

It reduces the field cost
...

Inferential statistics may be used
...

Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population
...

Observation of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations
...

ii
...

iv
...


3
...

Knowledge of population is essential
...

This method can’t ensure the representativeness
...


Stratified sampling: It is an improvement over the earlier methods
...

Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to be more relevant in his
research work
...
Disproportionate: This means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to
the size of the unit but depends upon the considerations involving personal judgement and
convenience
...
It is less efficient for determining population characteristics
...
Proportionate: It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit
...
Lack of information on proportion of the
population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this
method
...
Optimum allocation: Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than
other stratified samples
...
Each stratum should
be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population
...


23

Advantages of stratified sampling:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...

v
...


Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide
the relevant criterion for stratification
...

It is costly and time consuming
...

There is a risk of generalization
...
This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample
...
This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent
questionnaires may not return them
...

To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the
people interviewed to obtain the desired information
...

This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained
from first sample
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...


This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample
...

This technique is time consuming and costly
...


Multi stage sampling: This sampling is more comprehensive and representative of the population
...

Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is
done by the researcher
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...


24

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...


It is a difficult and complex method of sampling
...

It is again a subjective technique of sampling
...
In cluster
sampling the sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items
in the population
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...

v
...

Disadvantages:
i
...


Cluster sampling is not free from errors
...


B
...
Depending upon the technique used it may be:
1
...
e
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...
e
...

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...


It is not representative of the population
...

Parametric statistics cannot be used
...
Here, group may
also be selected on the basis of institution or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be self-evident
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...

It is not free from errors
...


25

iv
...


Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization is
not possible
...

The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are considered important for the
particular study
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...

Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...

v
...


Reliability of the criterion in questionable
...

Errors of classifying sampling subjects
...

Inability to make generalization concerning total population
...
Thereafter, a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to
sample as he likes
...

Advantages:
i
...

ii
...

iii
...


Disadvantages:
i
...

iii
...


6
...

It is not free from errors
...


Snowball sampling: The term ‘snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure
in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study proceeds
...

For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand of cigarette
...
At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the names of other persons known to
first stage subjects
...

Advantages: Snowball sampling which is considered to be non-probabilistic can be converted into
probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage
...

Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling: Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light
of available information, these mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given

26

characteristics
...
)
These controls may be further subdivided by specified categories within classes such as amount of
training, years of years of experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon
...
Purposive sampling differs from
stratified random sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be included in the sample in each
group is done purposively rather than by random method
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...


Probability sampling
It is a method of sampling which gives the
probability that a sample is representative of
population
...

It refers from the sample as well as the
population
...

It may be representative of the population
...

Inferential or parametric statistics are used
...

2
...


There is no idea of population
...


There is no probability of selecting any
individual
...

The observations are not used for generalization
purpose
...

There is no risk for drawing conclusion
...


5
...

7
...

It is based on law of probability sampling, i
...

Law of Statistical Regularity and Law of the
Large Sample
...

It is generally used in action researches in which
one studies a class without any generalization
...

9
...
A
sample is a sub-group of the population
...


2
...

Example: A researcher may be interested in contacting firms in iron and steel or petroleum products industry
...

Sometimes, the researcher is interested in gathering information from every individual
...


When is sample appropriate:
1
...

3
...


When the size of population is large
...

If the population is homogeneous
...
Example: Reactions to global advertising by a
company
...

2
...


Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)
...

When we have extensive resources
...


Steps in sampling design: Sampling process consists of seven steps
...

2
...

4
...

6
...


Defining the population
...

Specifying the sampling unit
...

Determination of sample size
...

Selection of sample
...
Sample Size Estimation
Sample size calculation:
n=

𝑧 2 𝑝𝑞
𝑑2

where
n = sample size
z = 1
...
05%)
n = 245, considering 10% non-responsive rate sample size would be 273
...
For other types of sampling, the minimum sample
size would be higher, depending on the design effect
...
In case of finite population, a correction is necessary to determine the appropriate
𝑛0
sample size
...
05
...
Data Collection Methods
Data collection methods
Methods of collecting data: There are many methods to collect or obtain data for statistical analysis
...

2
...


Surveys
Direct observation and
Experiments

Surveys: The survey is briefly a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form for defined purpose of given social
situation of problem and population
...
g
...
The response rate i
...
the
proportion of all people selected who complete the survey is a key survey parameter
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

It provides necessary information and plan for improvement
...

It interprets, synthesizes and integrates data and points out their implications
...

It is the only method through which the researcher can obtain the options, attitudes and suggestions for
improvement
...


Steps involved in designing in survey method:
1
...

3
...

5
...

Selection of an appropriate survey method
...

Conducting survey and collecting data
...


Characteristics of survey:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


Survey is conducted in a natural setting
...

Survey is widely used in non-experimental social science research
...

Survey involves real world samples
...

It is systematic, follows specific set of rules, a formal and orderly logic of sequences
...


Purpose of survey: There are two purposes of survey
...

2
...
For example, pools, census, customer
satisfaction, attitude etc
...
For example,
personality and social psychology theories
...
Personal interviews can take place at home, at a shopping mall, on the street and so on
...

2
...


The ability to let the interviewee see, feel and/or taste a product
...
For example, one can find people who have seen a film
much more easily outside a theater in which it is playing than by calling phone numbers at
random
...
Particularly with in-home interviews that have been
arranged in advance
...


Disadvantages:

•

1
...

2
...

Telephone surveys: It is a process of collecting information from sample respondents by calling them over
telephone
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

One can dial random telephone numbers when one does not have the actual telephone numbers
of potential respondents
...


Disadvantages:
1
...

2
...
This
limits calling time to a ‘window’ of about 6-9 pm (when one can be sure to interrupt dinner or a
favorite TV program)
...
One cannot show sample products by phone
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

Answers are more accurate to sensitive questions through a computer than to a person or paper
questionnaire
...
Different interviews can ask questions in different ways, leading to
different results
...


Disadvantages:
1
...


•

The interviewees must have access to a computer or it must be provided for them
...

E mail surveys: E mail questionnaire is a new types of questionnaire system that revolutionizes the way online questionnaires are conducted
...
E mail questionnaire is totally e mail based
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...


Speed: An e mail questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or two
...

Pictures and sound files can be attached
...


Disadvantages:
1
...

3
...


•

Researcher must possess or purchase a list of email address
...

Many people dislike unsolicited e mail even more than unsolicited regular mail
...
People who have e mail are different from
those who do not, even when matched on demographic characteristics, such as age and gender
...
E mail surveys cannot be automatically skip questions or randomize question
...
They have major speed,
cost and flexibility advantages, but also significant sampling limitations
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...


7
...
A questionnaire posted on a popular website can gather
several thousand responses within a few hours
...

There is practically no cost involved once the setup has been completed
...
Some web survey software can also show video and play sound
...
These features can assure better data
...

A significant number of people will give more honest answers to questions about sensitive topics,
such as drug use or sex, when giving their answers to a computer, instead of to a person or on
paper
...


Disadvantages:
1
...
Internet surveys do not reflect the population as
a whole
...

2
...
They are not as likely to complete a long
questionnaire on the web as they would be if taking with a good interviewer
...
Depending on your software, there is often no control over people responding multiple times to
bias the results
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

Since the interviewer is not present face to face, the influence of interviewer on the respondent is
eliminated
...


32

4
...


Mail surveys allow the respondent to answer at their leisure, rather than at the often inconvenient
moment they are contacted for a phone or personal interview
...

Where the questions asked are such that they cannot be answered immediately, and needs some
thinking on the part of the respondent; the respondent can think over leisurely and give the
answer
...

2
...


4
...

6
...


It is not suitable when questions are difficult and complicated
...
Because
thinking time allowed to the respondent will influence the answer
...
If questionnaire is directed towards the housewife,
say to know the expenditure on kitchen items, she alone is supposed to answer it
...

Any clarification required by the respondent regarding questions is not possible
...

Poor response (30%) – not all will reply
...


Response categories: Survey questions can either be open or closed:
•

Open questions: These questions ask respondents to construct answers using their own words
...

Closed questions: These questions force respondents to choose from a range of predetermined responses, and
are generally easy to code and statistically analyze
...


Open ended questions
These questions ask respondents to construct
answers using their own words
...


2
...

4
...

Take a long time to answer
...

5
...

• What did you manage to accomplish
on the trip?
• What happened at the meeting?

2
...

4
...

These are multiple choice questions
...

Answers are often short and factual
...
Examples:
• Do you get to work by driving, busing or
walking?
• Do you get on well with your boss?
• Was your trip successful?
• Did you have a good meeting?

Advantages of survey method:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Direct and close contact between researcher and respondents
...

Tests the validity of theories
...

Social surveys are based on actual observation
...


33

Disadvantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


Survey method is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the objectives are limited
...

In this method, personal bias may vitiate the result
...

In this method, it is very difficult to verify the accuracy of the data collection
...

It does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society but deals with the problems of
immediate importance only
...
If the sample is not carefully planned,
inferences down may be inaccurate and misleading
...
Observe is to notice using a full range of appropriate senses; to see, hear, feel, taste and smell
...

2
...


Structured: Highly systematic and often rely on predetermined criteria related to the people, events, practices,
issues, behaviors, actions, situations and phenomena being observed
...

Unstructured: Observers attempt to observe and record data without predetermined criteria
...
They may be used purely descriptively or to determine whether the test taker
qualifies in terms of some standard of performance
...

2
...

4
...

Can be constructed to match a given curriculum or set of skills
...

Are accepted by the public as a credible indicator of learning
...

2
...

4
...

May be very time consuming
...

May be subject to corruption via coaching or cheating
...

b
...

d
...


Questionnaires
Interviews
Schedules
Observation techniques
Rating scales

They are discussed below:
a
...
It may be defined as:
A questionnaire is a systemic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from
which information is desired
...
It is easy to prepare
and to administer
...
It is a device for
securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by himself/herself
...
It is an important instrument being used to gather information from
widely scattered sources
...

Characteristics of a good questionnaire:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

10
...

11
...

12
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...

It is a time saving process
...

It is very suitable for special type of responses
...


Disadvantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...


b
...

Lack of personal contact
...

Chances of receiving incomplete response are more
...

It may be useless in many problems
...

In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee
...
Both create their respective impression upon each other
...
In
an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional
and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee
...

Characteristics:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...


35

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


Direct research
...

Knowledge of past and future
...

Multi encouragement is possible
...

Knowledge of historical and emotional causes
...


Disadvantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...


c
...

Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced)
...

Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interviewee and interviewer
...

Art rather than science
...

Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face
to face situation with another
...
J
...
K
...
In schedule method, interview occupies a central and plays a vital role
...

Important features of schedule:
1
...
The questions are asked and the answers are noted down
by him
...
The list of questions is a mere formal document, it needs not to be attractive
...
The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research
...
It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements essential to
the analysis
...
It aims at delimiting the subject
...
In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the interviewer is
always armed with the formal document dealing the questions
...

Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions
...

Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions
...

Questions should be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level
...


Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Higher percentage of responses
...

Through interview personal contact is possible
...

Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there
...


36

d
...
It is used for
evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person
...
it is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children
...

In questionnaires and interview, people may write answers as they think; they do, but this is often different
from what they actually do
...
So observation is a more natural way
of gathering data
...
Data obtained through observation are more real and true than the data collected
by any other method
...

Characteristics of observation schedule:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

10
...

11
...

12
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...

We get first hand data through this method
...

It is simple, broad and comprehensive method
...


Disadvantages or limitations:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly
...

It is a very time-consuming process
...

Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i
...
subject becomes conscious
...

Observer should be trained and experienced
...
Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which such
judgements can be quantified
...
A rating method is a method by
which one systematizes, the expression of opinion concerning a trait
...

The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the
subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgements of the experimenter himself
...


Advantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Writing reports to parents
...

Finding out students’ needs
...

Supplementing other sources of undertaking about child
...


Disadvantages:
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...

9
...

Difference in reliability as subjects for rating
...

Average superior than single
...

Limits of self-rating
...

Limits of rating of specific qualities
...


Difference between interview and questionnaire:
1
...

3
...

No face to face contact between two
...

2
...


4
...

Interviewee will hesitate to write it
...


We get written information only
...


38

4
...

There is face to face contact between interviewer
and interviewee
...

Some confidential information can also be
obtained
...


14
...

Scientific communication: Scientific communication is a part of information science and the sociology
of science which study researchers' use of formal and informal information channels, their communicative roles (e
...
,
"gatekeepers"), the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues
...

The scientific method:
Make careful observations of the world
↓
Ask a question based on what has been seen
↓
Propose some tentative answers or hypotheses
↓
Use the hypotheses to make predictions about new as yet unobserved data or phenomena
↓
Test predictions by making observations of new data
↓
Reject hypotheses that fail to predict new observations
The scientific communication path:
Define the question
↓
Gather information and resources
↓
Formulate hypothesis
↓
Perform experiment and collect data
↓
Analyze data
↓
Interpret and draw conclusions for new hypotheses
↓
Publish or communicate results
Common modes of scientific communication:
•
•
•
•

Writing scientific papers
Making a scientific or technical presentation
Writing research or project proposal
Extracting, searching and creating Web pages

Importance of scientific communication:
1
...

3
...

Professional success in any future workplace relies on one’s technical communication skills (making effective
presentations, writing proposals, compiling technical reports etc
...


39

Modes of scientific communication:
1
...

3
...

5
...

Organized thinking and ability to abstract ideas
...

Differentiating and understanding the objectives or each communication mode (audience, clients, goals)
...

2
...

4
...


Telling an interesting story, knowing and calibrating for the specific audience – it is showtime
...

Creating slides – simple and clear context (new section)
...

A presentation is very different than a paper or a report
...

Proposal style:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Title (orient the audience)
Introduction
Problem statement
Assertions set up proposed solution
Assertions are supported
Proposed solution is pitched (does solution make sense from technical point of view? Does it make sense from
management point of view? Can the proposal writers do it?)
7
...

8
...
Management plan – timeline, budget, Q-A, collaboration
...
References
11
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

10
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

Less 5% of report length (sometimes less than 150 words)
Summarizes the key information from each section
...

Omits introductory explanation, definitions and other background information – it is not an introduction
...

2
...


4
...

Major finding including key quantitative results or trends (Results)
• Report those results which answer the questions you were asking
• Identify trends, relative change or differences etc
...
Basic Principles of Research Ethics
Ethics: Ethics is the branch of study dealing with what is the proper course of action for man
...
At a more fundamental level, it is the method
by which we categorize our values and pursue them
...

Bioethics: The term bioethics is derived from bios (meaning life) and ethos (meaning behavior)
...

Bioethics includes the study of what is right or wrong in new discoveries and techniques in biology, such as genetic
engineering and transplantation of organs
...
In involves
ethical rules that apply to everyone, the scientific ethical rules and morals, which are unique for each individual
...


2
...

4
...
The healthcare professional should not harm the patient
...

Justice: Benefits and risks should be fairly distributed
...

Beneficence: This principle considers the balancing of benefits of treatment against the risks and costs; the
healthcare professional should act in a way that benefits the patient
...

Autonomy is the capacity for self-determination
...


2
...

4
...


6
...

• Autonomous individuals are able to make independent decisions, while those with diminished
autonomy are entitled to protection
...

Beneficence: To do some good
...

Nonmaleficence: To do no harm
...

• This usually requires and assessment for who benefits for the research, who bears the burdens or takes
the risks and
• Requires research designs that ensure equity of treatment of participants
...

• All research is a collaborative venture, whether that is with participants, other researchers or other
source material; fidelity therefore incorporates other principles such as integrity, trustworthiness and
honesty
...


42

Inform consent format:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Title
Introduction
What is involved in the study?
Risks
Benefits to taking part in the study
Confidentiality
Incentives
Rights as research participants
Contacts for questions or problems

Institutional review board (IRB): An institutional review board (IRB), also known as an independent ethics
committee (IEC), ethical review board (ERB), or research ethics board (REB) is an administrative body established to
protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under
the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated
...


2
...

4
...


Research design: It includes the following informationa
...
Is there a reasonable statistical plan?
▪ Does it require more subjects than can reasonably be enrolled?
c
...
About the investigator:
• Who is the primary investigator and who is supervising the study?
2
...
g
...
)?
• Any special characteristics of participants (e
...
children, alcoholics, mentally retarded etc
...
Procedure:
• What will the subjects be asked to do or what behaviors will be observed by the researchers?
• Will description be used? If yes, why is it necessary?
• What is the nature of deception, and when will the debriefing take place?
4
...
Risks:
• Any immediate risks to the subjects, including possibly causing them embarrassment, inconvenience
or discomfort?
• Are there any long-range risks to the subjects?
• If there are risks, what is the necessity for them and how will subjects be compensated for facing such
risks?

43

Authorship: An author is broadly defined as the person who originated or gave existence to anything and whose
authorship determines responsibility for what was created
...

Authorship is an explicit way of assigning responsibility and giving credit for intellectual work
...

Authorship practices should be judged by how honestly, they reflect actual contributions to the final product
...


44

Short Notes
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is an act of fraud
...
All of the
followings are considered as plagiarism:
1
...

3
...

5
...


Turning in someone else’s work as one’s own
Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
...

Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
...

Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of one’s work, whether he/she
gives credit or not
...

Types of plagiarism:
A
...
The ghost writer: The writer turns in another’s work, word-for-word, as his or her own
...
The photocopy: The writer copies significant portions of text straight from a single source, without
alteration
...
The potluck paper: The writer tries to disguise plagiarism by coping from several different sources,
tweaking the sentences to make them fit together while retaining most of the original phrasing
...
The poor disguise: Although the writer has retained the essential content of the source, he or she has
altered the paper’s appearance slightly by changing key words and phrases
...
The labor of laziness: The writer takes the time to paraphrase most of the paper from other sources
and make it all fit together, instead of spending the same effort on original work
...
The self-stealer: The writer borrows generously from his or her previous work, violating policies
concerning the expectation of originality adopted by most academic institutions
...
Sources cited (but still plagiarized)
1
...
This often masks other forms of
plagiarism by obscuring source locations
...
The mis-informer: The writer provides inaccurate information regarding the sources, making it
impossible to find them
...
The too perfect paraphrase: The write properly cites a source, but neglects to put in quotation marks
text that has been copied word-for-word, or close to it
...

4
...
So, the paper contains almost no original work
...

5
...
This way, the writer tries to
pass off the paraphrased material as his or her own analysis of the cited material
...
Simply acknowledging that certain material
has been borrowed and providing one’s audience with the information necessary to find that source, is usually enough
to prevent plagiarism
...
e
...

Techniques of randomization: Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
f
...
Throwing a dice
h
...
Blind folded method
j
...

vi
...

viii
...

It is free from subjectivity and free from persona error
...

The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose
...

v
...


It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample
...

Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample
...

The cross sectional study collects information about current disease state and/or current exposure status
...
g
...
It is the method
therefore to determine the point or period prevalence of a disease or attribute, and serial cross sectional studies can be
used in certain circumstances to measure incidence
...


2
...


Choosing a representative sample: A cross sectional study should be representative of the whole population,
if generations from the findings are to have any validity
...
If the study is to be representative, attempts should be made to include herd to reach groups, such
as people in institutions or the homeless
...
Sample size calculations can be carried out using sample size
tables or statistical packages
...
The data collection methods will depend on the exposure, outcome and study setting, but include
questionnaire and interviews as well as medical examinations
...

4
...

5
...

Advantages:
1
...

3
...

It can be conducted within a short timescale
...

Disadvantage:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

Uses of cross-sectional study design:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

Design of a cross sectional study

47

Types of cross sectional study design:
•
•
•

Descriptive cross sectional study: It collects number of cases and number of total population
...

Analytical cross sectional study: It measures association between exposure and outcome
...

Repeated cross sectional study: In this type of study, exposure and disease are determined at baseline and
reassessed throughout a period of follow up
...
In probability sampling, each element in the population has a known
nonzero probability of being selected through the use of a random selection procedure
...
Rather, subjective methods are used to decide which elements
should be included in the sample
...

Example: Election study
...
In this sampling, representativeness is not significant
...


2
...
Data is collected from potential customers to understand specific issues or manage opinions of a
newly launched product
...

They also use it when collecting feedback about a particular feature or a newly launched product from the
sample created
...


2
...


Collect data quickly: In situations where time is a constraint, many researchers choose this method for quick
data collection
...
Due to this simplicity, data
collection tasks require minimum time
...
It allows researchers to generate more samples with less or no
investment and in a brief period
...
Elements are
easily accessible by the researchers and so, research becomes easy to do
...

5
...
So, samples are
readily available to the researcher
...

Fewer rules to follow: It does not require going through a checklist to filter members of a population
...


49



---