Notesale: Turn your study into money

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INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN EDUCATION
TEACHING AND LEARNING
...
That
‘something’ is either content, facts, skills and processes
...
In this connection, when
one refers to another as a teacher’, we automatically take this to mean someone
involved in teaching
...
Some of the steps are;
•

consultation of the syllabus
...


•

Interpretation of the objectives
...


•

Selection of resource materials and

•

Actual classroom presentation of the lesson
...
The teacher should be motivated to teach and adequately equipped with the
necessary knowledge and skills, the learner should be interested to learn
...
It is
commonly said that learners are taught by a teacher, but they also acquire information
from other sources such as books
...

The teacher’s role in a teaching situation
...
It is very important that we
consider some of these roles
...

It is important that you know the teacher’s role while teaching is taking place
...
This is particularly so as new knowledge is coming

up every now and then
...


The students
...
From this knowledge, the teacher will be able to tell about the students’
ages, what they already know, what types of homes they come from
...


b
...


The students belong to a society which has a certain structure, characteristics,
aspirations and is also evolving
...
This will enable the teacher to contextualise the content according to the
needs of the society
...


The Nation’s educational policy
The teacher needs to know the objectives of the National policy document
and be able to interpret them correctly
...


Subject matter
...
Here, the teacher
will be trying to find out
...
The organisation of school subjects is also constantly
changing
...
For example, in Kenya, Aids Education and

drug abuse demand that teachers have to employ all available methods of selfimprovement to learn these new subjects and how to teach them
...

In this sub-section, we are going to see the teacher as a planner
...
For the teacher to plan well, he/she has to make major decisions
based on major questions which he/she has to seek answers to
...

i
...
What for example does “promotion of national
lessony mean in relation to the subject matter
...


Specific activities should be carried out, by the
teacher and the students both inside and outside the
classroom?

iii
...


How long should each activity last [a period, a week, a
term, a few minutes] ?

To arrive at appropriate decisions on any of these, the teacher will be guided by his
/her earlier study of the learners, their society, the general educational policy, and the
relevant subject matter
...
To achieve this, he/she
has to play the role of a skilled craftsman
...

Below are some of the ways by which the teacher acts as a skilled craftsman
...
By presenting learning materials in an interesting way
...
By illustrating, demonstrating and explaining
...
By asking and answering questions
...
By giving assignments
...


By correcting assignments
...
By praising learners who behave properly and helping or punishing those
who do not behave properly
...
If the teacher has
studied his learners well, his/her society and his nation’s educational goals and
objectives correctly, his/her plan will tend to work better than it would have done if
he/she had not previously performed all these tasks
...

The teacher is constantly making decisions
...

Out of a variety of possible procedures, he has to decide on which one
...

A diagrammatic representation would help illustrate the decision making
process
...
Let us now define learning and see how it relates to teaching
...

Psychologists have been investigating the subject of learning over the years
...
From this definition,

several key words have to be understood
...
It is therefore very important that we examine the meaning of change
in behaviour as a result of learning
...
If we look at the
learner as a different person at two different extremes of a continuum in a learning
situation, then it will help us to understand what the teacher does during the
teaching/learning process
...


i
...
Rather, it refers to change
in intellectual and emotional functioning
...

ii
...


A person’s behaviour can deviate from normal because of the effects of drugs
...

Similarly, an individual can change in behaviour as a result of fatigue
...


•

Realise that it is possible to arrive at the solution to a particular problem,
by adopting a new method
...


Our focus therefore is on a positive change in behaviour as a result of learning
...
This friendly relationship is a positive change in behaviour
...
Interaction with others may also take the
form of observing natural scenes eg forests, rivers, situations such as people drinking
together or dancing or phenomena such as thunder, rainfall, the individual carrying
out some investigation or experiment
...
For
example, a baby’s efforts to move about such as in crawling or walking tend to start at
a particular period in life
...
For example, the legs must be
strong enough for a toddler to learn to walk
...

Psychologists have attempted to study learning mostly by studying animals and by
putting people in experimental conditions [as opposed to normal, everyday
conditions] in the laboratory
...
Such theories as
stimulus – response (Povlov: 1959), gestalt, programmed learning (Skinner :1966)
have raised heated controversies over what the right theory on learning should be
...
Instead, you should see the different theories as complementary to one
another
...
e
...


Relationship between teaching and learning

You may have realised that learning is very important in teaching
...

i
...


ii
...


iii
...


Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning by the teacher
...
The learner can sometimes be the teacher since he/she also influences
the teacher’s behaviour
...


TRAINING
As the teacher guides his/her learners through a teaching – learning situation, there
may be certain instances when a training situation may arise
...
In such a situation, we
would have the teacher as the trainer and the learner as the trainee
...

In this situation, we can see the learner going beyond listening and understanding (as
is necessary in teaching), to repeating the motions of performing a certain task as
shown by the teacher
...
In doing so, there may be
certain methods to be followed so as to perform the task of teaching easily and
effectively
...


However, understanding these principles may not necessarily lead to you becoming a
confident teacher
...
The
task of teaching will therefore need to be defined, understood and then analysed into
sub-tasks
...
In
the process, you will be;

i
...


ii
...


iii
...


iv
...


v
...


In the situation described above, the trainee began by getting some basic information
about the task to be performed, understood it then performed the task repeatedly until
he/she attained skill in the task’s performance
...


An understanding of the training process makes it possible to observe and know the
results of a performance on the basis of the final product
...

Education goes beyond teaching and training
...
An educated person therefore should be seen
as the one whose interaction with others is socially acceptable
...
This close contact with other human beings will
require him or her to act, react and interact with others
...


There are three forms of education
...


Formal education
...

Examples are schools and colleges
...
Occasionally, there is supervision by inspectors and the final
mark of education is formal evaluation and awarding of certificates
...

This means any organised activity outside the structured or formal system but which
is meant to meet needs of a particular group of people
...
An example is the agricultural extension officer,
who may be meeting with some villagers to alert them of a livestock disease outbreak
and how to protect their livestock
...

Informal Education
...
It pursues its own course at its own pace by its
own means throughout each person’s life
...

Definition of Key Words and Concepts
...

Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either through talking,
telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating
...


SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING
...
In a system approach, certain steps are followed in a logical way, with
certain steps being essential and therefore indispensable
...
The
purpose for this lesson is to see whether systems approach can find a place in the
process teaching and learning
...
The most basic definition is by
Roiszowki (1981) who states that system is a set of elements or components or objects
which are interrelated and work towards an overall objective
...


Examples of Systems
...

•

Human Body Systems: - In our bodies, we have system such as digestive,
circulatory, nervous etc

•

Mechanical Systems: - For examples refrigeration systems, generator
system, computer systems and different types of engines
...


•

Natural Systems: - For example, physical entities such as rivers, forests
etc
...
A system can either be open
or closed
...
It

demonstrates a phenomenon called principal of equifinality, which states that an
open system can reach its final state in a number of different ways because it can
interact with its surroundings by receiving ideas and inputs from the environment
...
A closed system is one, which operates in
isolation from its environment
...
Its
final state is dependant on its initial state
...

Components of A System
Generally, a system is distinguished by the following components: Goals – Every system has a goal, which is the target to be achieved
...

Elements – There are more than one elements
...

Harmony – Coherent interaction for attaining the common goal
...

Feedback – A provision for assessing the suitability of the success level in the
interaction leading to the attainment of the intended goal
...


General Characteristics of A System
•

Goals and mission – Each system works towards a specified goal or the
accomplishment of a given mission
...
Each functional lesson
forms a sub-system with elements that cannot work independently
...


•

A system has boundaries, which distinguish each part form the other parts
of the system thus ensuring that a specific task is performed at a particular

point, yet both parts depend on each other
...
This consists in a set of conditions that
are relevant but not directly under the influence of the system usually
environment of a system contains the resources and constraints
...
In this context, open
system receive ideas inputs from the environment
...
System objectives operate within environmental
constrains and there is a critical point at which the system may collapse
...


•

Feedback – This is specific input into the system that gives information
about the achievement (output) for purposes of re-examining the system
...


•

Dynamic stability – Each system is dynamically in harmony with the
environment and exhibit levels of balance among its elements or subsystems based on common expectations
...


The Environment of A System
...
This is a set of all objects, a
change in whose attributes affect the system and also those objects whose attributes
are changed by the behaviour of the system of the system
...
He argues that the

supra system and the immediate environment makes up the entire environment
...
There purposes and functions are limited to the target system itself
...

The ultimate function of a system is necessarily determined by the component
processes operating with the target system
...
In order to
survive, the system must interact with and adjust its environments and the other parts
of the supra system
...

which enter the system and which will to a great extent determine the
quality of the operation of the system
...


•

The supra system receives the product of an open system which becomes a
functioning parts of the environment, thus influencing the operation of the
supra system
...


•

Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) with the environments
and exhibits various levels of balance among its elements based on
common expectations and goals
...

According to Hooper (1971) Education is a system because it has a set of inputs
(money, children etc) which are subject to a process, in order to attain certain
objectives which appear as outputs (educated children)
...


2
...
1 The School as a system
...

Goal – The school receives raw materials (the learners) whose behaviour is
transformed through the process of education
...


The school receives its goals from the society
...


In Kenya, most of these long - term goals come from the Ministry of Education and
will therefore, be stated in school syllabuses or educational reports
...


These long- term goals include the six National Goals of Education
...
Whatever is done in the system must address these
goals
...
They include head-teachers, teachers, learners, teaching learning
resources, physical facilities, non-teaching staff etc
...
All these elements are part of the Education System
...


The head-teacher as administrator must provide effective administration
...
He has to establish conditions, which make it
possible to achieve effective learning
...
Teachers should provide an environment with optimum
conditions of learning
...
The learners must be disciplined
because lack of order will disrupt learning and therefore the attainment of goals
...
g
...

Feedback – Both the teachers and the learners need to get feedback from the learning
process to test whether the products are being processed in the desired way
...
If feedback is positive, the teacher will be
encouraged to continue knowing that he is in course
...


SYSTEM MODELS IN THE PROCESS OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING

Relevance of Systems Approach to Teaching and Learning
...


•

Mukwa (1979) defines systems approach as a process by which needs are
identified, or problems and their solutions are selected from alternatives,
methods and means are obtained and implemented, results are evaluated and
required revisions to all or part or the system are made so that the needs are
eliminated
...
Synthesis on the other hand involves the design of a new
system so that the identified problem can be solved
...
We can also conclude that the
What is the advantage of applying a systems approach to the
systems’ approach fits in very well with our school programme
...


Simple Model of A System Approach
The simplest technological model consists of three basic elements: - Input, Process
and Output
...

Figure 2 : Illustration model of a system approach

INPUT

•

PROCESS

OUTPUT

The above diagram reveals that if you want to produce some new product, you
have to carry out certain processes on the original material
...
Here, the model does not say anything about the quality of the product
...
In education, we need to know or see the effect of the changes
...
They did this by adding some more elements
such as specification of the desired output, checking actual output against
expected output and processing the unaccepted output
...

DESIRED OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

IN PUT
YES

PROCESS

OUTP
UT

NO

•

In this model, the results of the process is checked through the feedback
mechanism
...
If it does
not measure up to the specified standard, it will go back through the process
...
Teaching –
learning is a dynamic process, but in the model the element process is like a dark
box
...


•

If we consider that the box – process represents a classroom teaching – learning
programme, then it is under the control of the teacher to plan his approach, to use
the necessary device to check the final product, to modify his approach on the
basis of feedback, and to make sure that the quality meets the required standard
...


Improved model with checks and balances
...

They have done this with some modification because it is difficult to implement
the idea of the system approach in education without proper understanding
...
He has
come out with four major elements in his model
...


Instructional

Entering

Instructional

Performance

Procedure

behaviour

objectives

assessment

Glasser’s Model of Teachings and Learning
...


•

Goal – Instructional objectives are to be formulated
...


•

Feedback – Performance assessment provided feedback to the elements
...
This will help a teacher to know the level
of his pupils on the basis of which he can decide from where to start and
how to go
...
There is no mention of content or material needed for conducting
a learner’s activity
...


•

Another Educationalist has also used the ground rules of a system to come
up with his own model
...


•

Objectives

These elements are: i
...


Selection of content

iii
...


Teaching strategy

v
...


Allocation of time

vii
...


Selection of resources

ix
...


Analysis of feedback

Assessment
of

Gerlach’s model of systematic approach to teaching
...
Gerlach has retained the concept of Glasser’s four
elements, but he has added some elements
...
Based on
objectives, content will be selected or vice versa
...
For instance, one has to find out what the
learner knows about the content to be taught or the experience he has about that
content
...
The entry behaviour will influence and will turn be affected
by the teaching strategies to be used, the type of group organization and the time
allocated for the content to be taught
...
The content and
objectives will further influence selection of resources to be used in teaching for
the achievement of the stated objectives
...
This is
meant to check whether or not the content is being learnt and objectives
are being achieved
...

before assessment is done again
...
The same applies to entry behaviour
and assessment of performance and related elements
...


•

Teaching and learning is done systematically using the syllabus which
specify the objectives of each content taught and which must be related to

goals of education
...


A model showing the application of system’s approach to teaching
and learning
...

•

In this model, technical terms are translated into educational and more
familiar terms which make it easier for teachers to understand
...


•

The most crucial part of this system, which differentiates it from other
systems is sharing of a box by objectives and evaluation
...
You exactly know what you want to produce since the
specifications of the standard outcome are described or decided in every

detail
...
This is a learning product or a desirable state
which you as a teacher hopes will result from the instruction whether in one lesson,
lesson course or curriculum
...

Each society has a vision of what attributes, its members should have
...
Education therefore is a
process through which the learner is helped to acquire desirable changes
...
Some of UNESCO’S goals of
education are that education must;
•

Foster international consciousness
...


•

Solve continuing problems that affect humanity such as war, hunger,
disease and unemployment
...
Through seminars, conferences and the sponsoring of scientific training, the
UNESCO’S goals of education are harmonised with each individual country’s aims of
education
...

To be able to achieve the desirable attributes each nation of the world offers education
to its youth
...
Education in any nation is therefore, guided by a set of aims of
education
...
However, at times, when referring to the national aims of education, the term
Aims’ and ‘goals’ of education are frequently used inter-changeably, and are used to

mean very general statements, that give a general but desirable direction to the entire
education system of a country
...


In Kenya, the aims of education are that education should;
•

Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national lessony
...


•

Promote individual development and self-fulfilment
...


•

Promote social equality and responsibility
...


•

Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards
other nations
...


Long Term Objectives
...
The
education given to the youth in Kenya is compacted into cycles of education such as
primary, secondary and tertiary education, each with its own long term objectives
...
The long-term objectives are
•

Stated in general terms
...


•

i
...


Curriculum objectives
In each cycle of education, the desirable outcomes of education are fashioned
through a set of disciplines or subjects such as Mathematics, Biology,
Chemistry, Physics, Geography and history
...
For example, within the

secondary school cycle of education, Geography may have its long- term
objectives, which are to be attained after four years of secondary school
education
...


Course objectives
...
These objectives may also be referred to as course objectives
...
However, both the curriculum and the course objectives are not
stated in behavioural terms
...


Topic objectives
...
A single topic may be covered over several
lessons depending on the content to be taught
...
Topic
objectives are more specific than course objectives, however, they are not
stated in behavioural terms as they will take several weeks before being
achieved
...


Instructional objectives (Lesson objectives)
The achievement of the long-term objectives of education will ultimately be
determined by what happens during the lesson
...
Instructional
objectives are the objectives to be achieved within a teaching session of 40
minutes in the case of a single lesson and 80 minutes in the case of a double
lesson
...
They also facilitate relevant assessment and serve as the basis for
sound curriculum development
...


Instructional objectives are therefore stated;
• in terms of the learners’ behaviour
...


•

Such that they are attained within a given time
...


•

Such that the conditions prevailing are specified
...


Our focus for the rest of this lesson will therefore be on the instructional
objectives
...
We therefore need
to be able to state clearly what the learner will be like as a result of the learning
process or what a successful learner will be able to do art the end of the learning
process
...


It should therefore be of major concern to you to describe accurately a learner who
has arrived at the desired state
...

An instructional objective is a statement that describes a desired state in the learner
...
The statement of an objective has to be
clear enough such that it communicates or conveys to others a picture identical to the
picture that you have in mind
...
It is therefore necessary that the words and symbols that
you select are those that communicate the exact intent as you understand it
...


Unfortunately, there are many words, which are open to more than one
interpretations
...
The following are some of the words, which have several interpretations
...


Terminal Behaviour
...
Overt behaviour refers to directly observable behaviour
...
You will
need to carefully select performance verbs that accurately describe the behaviour to be
displayed by the learner as a result of learning
...


Calculate

Design

Cite

Evaluate

Contrast,

Explain

Deduce

Extrapolate

Interpret
Justify

Translate
Label

List

Defend

Hypothesise

Derive

Identify

State

Verify
Write

Plot

Write
Predict

Describe

Infer

Propose

Plot

Propose

Select

When writing instructional objectives, it is important that the student s behaviour as a
result of learning be observable (overt) / written in performance verbs/words)
...


Setting educational objectives will enable you to;
•

determine with some precision whether or not the teaching has brought about
the terminal behaviour (or product) that you desire to be achieved at the end of

the learning process
•

establish a criteria for measuring success
...


Objectives are stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do not the teacher
...
There are some of the conditions a good lesson or
instructional objective should fulfil
...


•

The behaviour should be stated in measurable

•

The objective should be stated in a clear language (not vague)
...


•

The standard of performance expected should be indicated
...
There are times it can be assumed because it is expected anyway
...


•

Always an instructional objective must have an action verb
...


Here are some examples, which can help you understand or clarify the conditions
given:
•

By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to give five examples of cash
crops produced in Kenya
...


•

The learner should be able to label the human alimentary canal in a given diagram
...

When you are teaching a topic or a course you need to have an in-depth coverage of
the content
...
The importance of classifying objectives is to be able to judge the depth
and the variation of the content you have to cover when planning so that students are

exposed to all what they need to know
...


Each of the three taxonomies deals with knowledge in the following areas:
•

Cognitive domain – Concepts, ideas, factual knowledge
...


•

Psychomotor – skills
...


Domains of Instructional Objectives
...
Four domains into which behaviour is classified into are the cognitive,
psychomotor, affective and the social domain
...


Within each domain, attempts have been made to categorise the behaviours into levels
called taxonomies
...
The levels are
related in an hierarchical manner
...


•

Improve testing and research efforts
...


Cognitive Domain
Any objective which has to do with the learning of a concept, an idea or factual
knowledge, principles, procedures and other abstract or mental (intellectual)
processing of information is classified under cognitive domain
...
It was
devised by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues (Bloom et al
...
The cognitive
domain categorises behaviour falling under it into six levels, which are progressively

sequenced in an hierarchical fashion from lower to higher levels
...

Level

Description of the level

Words that describe the behaviour in the

the recall of material with

Recall, arrange, name, define, order, duplicate,

level
...


Comprehension The use of specific rule, concept classify, describe, discuss, explain,

express,

identify,
Method in a situation typical to

indicate, locate, recognise, report, restate, review,

Those used in class
...


Application

the selection and use of a learned rule

apply, use, solve, sketch, schedule,

Concept, method in a situation novel

operate, illustrate,

to the learner
...


practice, prepare,
employ,

interpret,

dramatise,

Ledge to new situation)
...


Analysis

Breaking down of material into its analyse, calculate, categorise, compare,

contrast,
Parts so that the relationship among

critisize, differentiate, distinguish
...
construct, create, design, new situations new
situations
Put together ideas in a
constructive manner
...


Judgement about the value of

argue, assess, defend, estimate, judge,

material and methods for

Support, rate, and predict

given purposes
...


i
...


•

define, digestion and excretion
...


Comprehension
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;

iii
...


Application
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;

iv
...


•

convert yards into meters accurately
...


•

spot inconsistencies in the explanation
...


•

determine logical fallacies in an argument
...


•

propose a suitable method for determining the chemical content of course
...


•

create a logical outline of describing the biological problem
...
It includes the ability to make judgements
...
g
...

•

The Learner should be able to write a critique of the English programme
...


The various levels in the cognitive domain increase in their demand on the learner
as you move from knowledge to evaluation
...


LEVELS

Knowledge

TASK DEMANDS

Least demanding

Comprehension
Application
Analysis

Moderate demand

Synthesis
Evaluation

Most demanding

Affective Domain
...
The expected learner behaviours related to these areas of
learning are non-observable and therefore are difficult to measure
...


•

The Learner should be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology
classroom discussion
...


Krathwohl’s taxonomy is the most widely used classification of the affective
objectives
...
It puts the
affective domain into five levels, which are progressively sequenced, in an
hierarchical fashion from lower to higher levels
...
Below is a summary of
the Krathwohl’s taxonomy
...


Responding

willingness to react to an event through participation reply, answer, follow along,
approve, obey,

find pleasure

in
...

response to objects, people, phenomena ect
...


Willingness and ability to organise a hierarchical and select, judge, identify with,

weigh
Relationship in values where more than one value is alternatives
...


Complying

Passive acceptance of role assigned by teacher
No overt avoidance of activity
...


•

participate wholeheartedly in the biology classroom discussion
...


Psychomotor Domain
...

The domain involves the intake of information from the environment, its processing
in the brain (learning) and its subsequent output as motor skills (physical behaviour)
...


Level

Description of the level

Words

that

describe the
behaviour within this level

Reflex movements

involuntary muscle movements

Psychomotor

combines responses of the eye/

co-ordination

hands/legs
...


Manual dexterity

ability to perform controlled rapid

tapping, typing,

And skillful arm/leg movements

drumming, plucking
...


Motor kinesthesis

ability in balance maintenance
...


Ambidexterity

Ability to use both limbs
Equally well, sometimes
independent of each other
...


•

Swim 100metres in four minutes
...


Although the four domains have been discussed separately, a single learning session
could objectives focusing at learners’ behaviours in two or more domains
...

i
...


•

To be followed by the subject content reference such as to name
parts of speech used in a sentence
...


ii
...

•

The level of achievement ; this is an indication of the minimum
acceptable accomplishment in measurable terms (how well, how
much, how accurate the achievement will be
...
At least 8 out of
10 within three minutes
...
Eg special equipment/specimens,
reference materials/maps/charts and time limits

In the affective domain, we estimate the change of learner behaviour by inferring
from what can be observed and hence the term approach tendencies in exhibiting a
positive attitude towards a situation or avoidance tendencies to reflect a negative

attitude
...

Aims of education:Aims of education are broad statements on the purposes of education in a
country
The long-term objectives: These are
•

Stated in general terms
...


Levels of objectives:These are the categories into which objectives fall as determined by the length
of time an objective takes to be achieved
...


Cognitive domain:This is the kind of knowledge, which involves recall of factual information
...


Psychomotor domain: Deals with knowledge which has to do with learning practical skills
...

Teaching Strategies
...
Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies
...

The Expository Strategy
...

The learners play mostly the role of receivers of this information
...

The teacher testing or assessing for the adequacy of reception recall or
understanding of the information by (repeating, rephrasing information
base on the feedback received or the non-verbal messages observed
...

•

Teacher – centred activities where the teacher ‘s autonomy is evident
...

This strategy is characterised by:
•

the teacher usually organising the task, providing and suggesting resources to
be used and monitoring the performance of the tasks
...


•

The teacher observing and testing the understanding of the activity, experience
or the practical being done or the principles and generalisations being drawn
...


•

Encouraging students to develop self-confidence and poise especially if they
have to present their findings to the class
...
The
diagram below illustrates this idea
...
Effective teaching seems to be provided by teachers who
make informal decisions about the strategy most appropriate to particular needs, and

particular students at various types
...
It is necessary to be more
specific when talking about strategies on the continuum
...
For our purpose, we will focus on the definition of strategies by Ayot
and Patel (1992), who refer to teaching strategies as ‘a set of processes combined to
achieve an expected outcome’

These two processes, methods or approaches will be discussed in details in the next
two lectures
...
Examples of methods in the heuristic
strategy include field trip, experimentation, laboratory work and discovery
...

Characteristics of Effective Teaching Situation
...

Organises the content well and prefer it in clear language
...

The teacher is purposeful and committed to his/her work
...

Expects the students to concentrate on the subject
...

Relates the concepts in everyday life experiences of the learners
...

Makes concepts and ideas appear simple and reasonable and easy to
understand and to apply
...

Encourage pupils to ask questions as the lesson continues
...

Is friendly and warm to pupils
...

There are various approaches and methods available to you in your business of
teaching
...
The choice is
dictated by various factors, which include:

•

The general objectives of the subject
...


•

Whether you will teach in the classroom, laboratory or field course
...


•

Specific objectives of a given topic
...


Lecture Method
The lecture method is a process of delivering verbally a body of knowledge to the
learners
...


•

The teacher presents ideas and concepts while the learners listen and take
notes
...


•

Due to shortage of time, you want to cover a lot of material in the little
time available
...


•

Conveying information such as instructions to an experiment
...


•

Summarizing important points at the end of the topic
...


Suggestions on how to Improve on Lecture Method

•

At lesson preparation stage consider the objectives you want to achieve
and the style of presentation that will enable you to achieve them
...


•

Your personality should be good, for example your appearance, manner
of dress and poise are important
...


•

Facial expression and gestures should be used to give emphasis
...


•

Constantly check on the learners’ understanding and encourage them to
interact and ask questions
...


•

Make use of illustrative devices/teaching aids
...

Advantages of the Lecture Method
...


•

Is inspirational in for example story telling type of lesson
...


•

It is economical because, it uses fewer teaching material
...


•

There is less effort on the part of the teacher in terms of organising the
class
...
Thus they
are passive recipients
...


•

Does not provide the learners with the opportlessony to organise their

thinking and verbally communicate to their peers during the lesson
...

Demonstration method involves the teacher carrying out an activity on behalf of the
learners
...
For the demonstration
method to be more effective you should:
•

Let the learners know why you are carrying out the demonstration
...


•

Ensure the materials and equipment are working before the demonstration

•

Every pupil should be in a position to see the demonstration
...
g , in assembling of equipment or
making the observations and readings
...

The discussion method can either be by small groups or by the entire class
...


•

Promotes critical thinking where ideas are criticized and evaluated by the
learner with supportive evidence for their arguments
...


To make the discussion method more effective, note the following:
•

It is recommended that the smaller the group the better the discussion as it
allows each member of the group to participate
...


•

The topics for discussion should be interesting and challenging to the learners
...


•

Students should respect each other’s point of view and not personalise the
differences in opinion
...


Discovery Method
...

This school of thought advocates not the teaching of knowledge itself, but to teach the
learner the skills by which he /she can generate knowledge that can ever be known, an
impossible task
...


The discovery method is also referred to as inquiry or problem solving approach
...

Identification of the problem
Formulation of hypothesis ( informed guesses)
Collection of and analysis of data
...

Developing meaningful generalizations
...

Use experimentalogy, data collection and analysis
...


In this process your role as a teacher is that of a facilitator while the learner is actively
involved in the learning experiences
...

The advantages of discovery methods are that:

•

Leads to understanding as opposed to note learning
...


•

Pupils find such lessons more interesting because they make students
more enthusiastic
...


•

Enhances research and critical thinking skills in the learner, thus

enhancing scientific culture
...


Disadvantages of The Discovery Method
...


•

It can be costly in terms of materials if you are doing experiments
...


•

Unless well supervised some learners might not gain from experiments /
discovery method
...

In this method the learners visit place of educational value such as museum, a
harbour, an airport a dam for learning
...

Planning for the Field Trip
...


•

Notify the school authorities and the authorities of the facility you want
the students to visit
...


•

List the main questions to guide the students
...


•

Organize for accommodation if students will be away one night or more
...


•

Inform the personnel who will accompany the students
...


•

Take safely measures very seriously and let the students know it
...


Project Method
...
They can carry out the project as individuals or groups
...


Let the pupils choose their own projects rather than you as teacher assigning the
projects
...
The project should be
of the class level of the learners
...


•

Ensure that the topics chosen are likely to develop interest in the learners
and whether they will be stimulating to intellectual pursuits as they carry
out the project
...


•

Ensure that all equipment’s and materials are available for the completion
of each project
...


•

Ensure that there is high standard of safety
...


Summary
...


•

Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies
...


•

Strategies involve processes, methods or approaches
...


•

Each strategy has specific methods or approaches that lean heavily on it
...

There is no one best method for all teaching situations
...


During the time of planning for teaching you should give a clear thought on what method or
methods of teaching you are going to employ depending on various factors such as the
topic, the level of the learners, the availability and quantity and contend of materials and
class size
...

Every subject in the curriculum, from pre-primary to university has a syllabus
...
In designing a syllabus, there are a number of considerations:

i)

National goals of education: What are the goals of education in the
country where the syllabus will be used?

ii)

Aims of education: This refers to general aims of the educational system
and aims of either primary, secondary or university level at which the
syllabus will be operational
...
How much content can
be covered within the time specified at different levels of education
...
Is it at primary,

secondary or university level?
vi)

Intellectual level or development of the learners: At what level are the
learners?

vii)

Resources available: These refer to both physical and human to make the
syllabus operational

viii)

The needs of the learners: These include the physical, psychological and
emotional needs of the students who will be exposed to the syllabus
...
It can further be defined as a detailed, logical and sequential plan
that interprets the syllabus into lessons that can be used in a teaching/learning
situation
...
It ensures that topics in the syllabus are taught in an orderly manner starting with
the simplest to the most complex
...

2
...

3
...
g
...
g
...

4
...

5
...
Infact the lesson plan is extracted from the
schemes
...
It checks on your pace of teaching by allowing you either to slow down or to
move faster
...
It is useful during transition, when you are transferred, the in-coming teacher will
easily take over from where you had reached avoiding repetition or omission
...


Factors to Consider when Scheming
For you to scheme effectively you need:
1
...

2
...
awareness of the teaching/learning environment:

This is physical conditions

either in and outside the school under which learning takes place
...
knowledge on resources available in the school and the commlessony
...


The Process of Scheming
For effective scheming, it is suggested that the following processes be followed:

1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...
This
will depend on the policy of the school
...
The teacher needs to
find out about the policy requirement and scheme accordingly
...

According to Cohen and Manion (1977) schemes may either be sequential or nonsequential depending on the subject being schemed
...
In maths sequential arrangement is a must
...
Every scheme of work must have administrative information indicating: the
subject, class, stream, term and year when the schemes will be operational
...

2
...
g
...

3
...
The number of lessons per week for subjects vary
...
Since there are many activities in the term which interfere with
teaching, you are supposed to identify these activities and cater for them in the
planning process
...

4
...
They are very specific, stated in behavioural terms of what you expect
learners to do at end of the lesson
...
Content (topic, sub-topic): It shows what topic or sub-topic will be covered in a
given lesson/period
...

6
...

7
...
g
...

8
...
g
...

9
...
They are
concerned with whether the lesson went on as schemed and if not why and what
steps will be taken to rectify the situation
...


10
...


Sample of a Geography Schemes of Work form 1A 1st Term 2001
Week

Period

Content

Objectives

1

1
2
3

Topic
Sub-topic
Main points

By the end of
the lesson the
learner should
be able to…

2

1

Topic
Sub-topic
Main points
…

By the end of
the lesson the
learner should
be able to …

3

2
3
1

Learning
Activities
e
...
group
discussions/
answering
questions
…
...
g
...
Reading
the text
on…
...


Importance of Lesson Plans

Well-written lesson plans are useful to you in many ways
...


They are used as basis for the lesson presentation
...


2
...


3
...


4
...
This becomes important incase of a memory lapse,
interruption or distraction
...


They give you security and confidence, especially if you are a beginning
teacher, you can walk into a classroom with the confidence gained from

having a well-developed, and organised framework for the day’s
instruction
...


They act as an orderly sequencing of content and learning activities in a
lesson
...
They improve your performance by acting as a basis for future planning
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
00 - 2
...

Topic/sub-topic: This is the name of the subject matter to be taught that day
...

Time: The time in the plan format shows the exact time you will spend at
every stage of the lesson (introduction, body and conclusion)
...
It identifies the main points to be delivered
in the body of the lesson
...
Each activity should be planned around the pattern of transition
namely: introduction activities, lesson development activities and
conclusion activities
...

On characteristics and construction of instructional objectives, the learner should refer
on earlier information given in chapter 3: Objectives of education under the sub-topic
"Instructional Objectives"
...
No
...
in Class
Date

Time

Topic
Sub-topic
Objectives

Time

Content

Learning Activities

Resources Materials

5
30

Introduction
Lesson
Development

A picture on…
Author, title, publisher,
place, year of
publication page
...


A lesson plan
Name of the student teacher: Nehema Wangai
School: Gracia Secondary School

Form 3B

Subject: Literature

No
...
00-9
...


Time content

Learning
Activities

5

Introduction: Definition of a
riddle: an enigma or dark saying
intended for the audience to
discover the hidden meaning

Attempting to
define the two term
riddle
...

- a house without a door
- Three daughter who can not
function without one

5

Step 2: Characteristics of riddles
i)
Statement form
ii)
Question form
iii)
Puzzling sounds
iv)
Long/short form
Step 3; Functions of riddles
i)
entertainment
ii)
sharpening ones intelligent
iii)
educating
iv)
Reinforcing behaviour
v)
Solving day to day life
tussles
Conclusion: Review the topic
taught
Self evaluation

Resource
materials

Eric Partridge
(1987) Usage and
Abusage London:
Guild publishing
p
...

Bukenya(1983) Oral
writing examples, or Literature for
riddles on the
schools
...
50
vernacular
Translating them to
English
Identify
Nandwa and Austin
characteristics of
Bukenya(1983),
...
51
the examples of
riddles given
...


: A lesson plan
Name of the student teacher: Nehema Wangai Reg
...
E35/099989/2002
School: Gracia Secondary School
Subject: Geography

Form 2W

Date; 16/3/2002

No
...
00 - 8
...


iv)

Describe with an illustration how conventional rain is caused

Time
5

Content
Introduction:
Definition of rainfall
- drops of water received from the
atmosphere
Lesson development
Step 1: types of rainfall
i)
Conventional
ii)
Relief
iii)
Frontal
Step 2: Conventional rainfall:
Characteristics
i)
thunders forms and lighting
ii)
heavy rainfall
iii)
rains in the afternoon
iv)
brief and large raindrops
v)
occurs in humid tropical areas
Step 3: Formation of conventional rainfall
(g) heating of the land
(ii) ………………………
(iii) ……………………
...

- Writing down
characteristics of
conventional rain
...

- Asking questions on
areas not clear

KIE
Geography
For From 2
Nairobi:
KLB, 1998
pp
...

Read on Relief rain from
KIE Geography
For From 2, p
...


MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM
Meaning of motivation
...

 James et
...
, define motivation as “all those inner striving conditions described
as wishes, desires, drives etc
...

 The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines motivation as “to
provide someone with a strong reason for doing something
...

 Motivation is manifested in an individual as deep desire and an urge to direct
energy in one direction to the exclusion of others for the purpose of learning
for the realisation of a goal or for accomplishing a task
...


a
...
An activity that leads
to learning may be its own reward and may continue for no other
reason than its own occurrence
...

 Simply put the drive, wish or desire is from within an individual
 Intrinsic motivation goes deep into our personality
...

 Such a task makes one happy or is satisfying
...

 One who is not mathematics inclined will only do the assignment

given by the teacher just to fulfil the requirement and probably
avoid punishment
...


b
...


•

This type of motivation is supported and enhanced by external
influences such as promised rewards, promotions, commendations
and so on
...


•

The motivation originates from other people, the environment,
situations, experiences etc
...


•

If well used both can be stimulating for while, but their efforts are
short-lived
...


•

Punishment takes many forms as motivational strategies
...

• Corporal punishment is discouraged because it does not result in positive
motivation at all
...

External motivation should be based on good teacher-student relationship
...

•

If one is kind, caring and respectful, students will jump at the promise because they know

you will keep it
...


•

Extrinsic motivators are external rewards that have meaning or value after performing
the work
...


•

In a job situation pay is often an extrinsic motivator
...


Motivational Strategies in the Classroom
...

It is necessary to:
 provide a supportive environment
...

 give students work with appropriate level of challenge or difficulty
...

 set meaningful and worthwhile learning objectives
...

 make moderation and variation in strategy use
...

 use promotions, praise, recognition, field trips and relevant treats such as
lunches to motivate learners
...


Intrinsic Motivational Strategies
...
Focus on success rather than
failure
...
The teacher may have to supply the motivator by a promise of
something, then the student internalises the thing, takes it seriously and
intrinsic motivation sets in
...

 Provide opportlessonies for active response
...
g
...


 Minimise performance anxiety, avoid threats and fear
...
g
...

 Encourage enthusiasm in the phenomenon e
...
its importance and relevance
...


Extrinsic Motivational Strategies
...
Use material rewards,
personal and group rewards
...
g
...

 Prepare group and individual competitions for prizes or recognition
...

 Provide an environment conducive to learning with suitable and sufficient
resources and good working equipment
...

Drives

-Are inner forces usually physiological or psychological that urge living things or

creatures to satisfy their basic needs such as hunger, thirst, anxiety, tiredness etc
...
They are important in motivation
...

Motives

- Reasons for action, that which prompts somebody to act
...
Motives and drives are
sometimes used synonymously
...


These concepts account for initiation, direction, intensity and persistence in classroom behaviour
...
It helps one
to focus on every detail of an experience so as to get the most out of it
...

 The need for assisting students is great because their attention span is
limited especially when certain methods of teaching such as lecturing are
used
...

 Once they want to learn the teacher’s task is easy
...

 That is why the teacher is challenged to observe and cater for individual
differences in class, and pay attention to them to sustain interest
...

 A deficiency of something within an individual is the first link in the chain
of events leading to behaviour
...

 This activity is directed toward a goal
...

 Once satisfaction is reached some students may just fall back into a state
of inattention and laziness
...


These steps can be diagrammatically represented as follows;

Diagrammatic representation of the motivational process
...
Physical /psychological
1
...


3
...

•

Many theories of motivation exist to explain why people behave the way
they do
...


•

Content theories are concerned with identifying what is within an individual or the
work environment that ENERGISES and SUSTAINS behaviour
...


•

Process theories first attempt to define the major variables necessary for
explaining choice
...


•

How hard do I need to work? and Persistence,

•

How long do I need to keep this pace?

•

Two content theories i
...
Maslow’s need hierarchy and Hertzberg’s two-factor
theory are important in understanding Motivation
...
e
...


Maslow’s Motivational Theory
...
This is illustrated
in the pyramidal figure shown
...


5
...
Esteem Needs

3
...
Safety Needs

1
...

4 - Need for esteem of others, respect, prestige, recognition, need for selfesteem, competence or mastery
...

2 - Security, protection and stability in the physical and interpersonal events
of day-to-day life
...

•

These needs are organised because of different levels of importance
...


•

Those that come first must be satisfied before a higher-level need comes into play
...

 This theory is not concerned with needs or why people make choices
...

 That is behaviour is considered to be environmentally caused
...

 If a student works very hard and scores an A in a subject where his/her best
score was always a C or a B, he/she is likely to work hard to score another A
...

 Reinforcement theory works on the law of effect, which states that Behaviour
that results in a pleasing outcome is likely to be repeated; behaviour that
results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated
...

 Positive reinforcements include rewards such as praise, recognition, pay
bonuses, field trips and school visits
...


 However, instead of providing a positive reward, the “reward” is that the
student or employee avoids some negative consequences such as a reprimand
...

 Positive and negative reinforcements address issues of having employees or
students learn desired behaviours
...

 In applying positive reinforcement to motivate desired behaviours, teachers
and managers, can use either a continuous reinforcement schedule or an
intermittent reinforcement
...

 An intermittent reinforcement schedule involves rewarding desired behaviour
periodically
...

Some Strategies of Sustaining Classroom Attention
We shall do this by examining the following considered suggestions
...

 Examples include pausing, hand signals, use of pictures and making
occasional calculated movements up and down the class or across the class
instead of standing or sitting in one place
...
g
...

 Use of feedback – comment on a students performance positively
...

 Use dramatic examples such as humorous comments
...

 Vary your mode of delivery, tone and voice during teaching
...

 Use active words that lead to enquiry when giving students assignments
...




---