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6
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With political and commercial realignments, old towns went into
decline and new towns developed
...
The growth of new regional powers
was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals such as
Lucknow, Hyderabad, Tanjore, etc
...
They also became centres of colonial administration and
political power
...
Every railway station became a collection depot for
raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods
...

From the beginning there were separate quarters for Europeans and
Indians, which came to be labelled in contemporary writings as the
White Town and Black Town respectively
...

The nature of the colonial city changed further in the mid-nineteenth
century
...
They felt that towns needed to be better
defended, and white people had to live in more secure and segregated
enclaves, away from the threat of the natives
...
White
people began to live in the Civil Lines
...
For the British, the Black areas came to
symbolise not only chaos and anarchy, but also filth and disease
...
Under-ground piped water supply and sewerage and
drainage systems were also put in place around this time
...


9
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vigilance thus became another way of regulating Indian towns
...
The hill stations became strategic places for placing troops,
guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy rulers
...

2
...
e
...

3
...

4
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It became a
practice for viceroys to move to hill stations during the summer
months
...

5
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With the
setting up of tea and coffee plantations in the adjoining areas, an
influx of immigrant labour from the plains began
...

6
...
Upper and
middle class Indians such as maharajas, lawyers and merchants
were drawn to these stations because they afforded them a close
proximity to the ruling British elite
...
Many new buildings were constructed at this
time
...

The architectural style was usually European
...
First, it expressed the British desire to create a familiar landscape
in an alien country, and thus to feel at home in the colony
...
Second, the British felt that European styles would best symbolise
their superiority, authority and power
...
Third, they thought that buildings that looked European would

4
...

Initially, these buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian
buildings
...
The British in turn adapted
some Indian styles to suit their needs
...


2
...


The invention of printing press has had everlasting impact on our
freedom movement
...

Such was the impact of these newspapers that the reactionist viceroys
like Lytton, Curzon and others have tried to obstruct the functioning of
these newspapers through acts like the Vernacular press Act, etc
...
It was in 1857 itself that Payam-e-Azadi started publi​cation in
Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to fight against the
British
...

2
...

This started a huge movement
...
Tilak edited the kesari, a Marathi newspaper, which became one
of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom
movement
...

4
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, to fight various social ills
...
Subash Chandra Bose and CR Das were not journalists but they
acquired the papers like Forward and Advance which later
attained national status
...

6
...

7
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started publication of the journal Ghadar
...
In 1905, Shyamaji Krishna Verma started publication of a journal
Indian Sociologist from London
...

Impact
1
...

2
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The drain theory propounded by moderate leaders
such as Dadabhai Naoroji, etc
3
...

4
...
Newspapers like
Darpan, Satyarth Prakash have worked for these reforms
...
Revolutionary terrorism: Vernacular press has been at the roots
of growth of the revolutionary nationalism movement
...


Treaty of Bassein
1
...


The Treaty of Bassein was essentially a subsidiary alliance signed
between the Britishers and Peshwa, BajiRao II
...

Marathas (Peshwa, Scindias, Holkars) were still a power to reckon with
in western and central India
...


3
...


5
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British troops at the expense of Peshwa were stationed at Poona, gave
greater strategic importance to the Britishers as the Company now could
interfere in the Maratha affairs directly and its rulers
...
Also, non-British Europeans were expelled and
were not allowed employment under Peshwa
...

Peshwa also agreed to cede in perpetuity to the company, territories in
Gujarat including Surat, territories yielding an income of 26 lakhs etc
which was used for financing the campaigns of Britishers in India
...


Establishment of powerful kingdom by Ranjit Singh
1
...


3
...


The power vacuum in Punjab province, created with the defeat of
Marathas and Mughals at the hands of British in late 18th century gave
the Sikhs an opportunity to rise, which they ably utilised under the
leadership of Ranjit Singh
...

All this led to dislocation of Punjab administration
...
As a result, the whole of Punjab and
Jammu were brought under their control
...
He was proclaimed Maharaja in 1801
...
The old chiefs were
transformed into big zamindars
...

Given the fair amount of stability, Punjab under Ranjit Singh built up a
powerful army along European lines
...
This
was evident in the Amritsar Treaty of 1809, between British and Ranjit
Singh, which recognised Sutlej as the border of Punjab Empire
...

1833 charter act
1
...

3
...

5
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Centralisation of power: The Governor General of Bengal was made
the Governor General of British India and all financial and
administrative powers were centralised in the hands of Governor
General-in-Council
...

Concept of Acts: The Act provided that all laws made in India were to
be laid before the parliament and be known as acts
...

Indians in Administration: The act provisioned to admit the natives of
India to share administration in the country
...

Thus, the act changed a commercial body to administrative setup and
laid the initial foundation for introduction of colonial government in
India
...


2
...
A lot of it was
based on Indian tradition, rather than western ideas
...
Hinduism had become a compound of magic, animism and

3
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Priestly class exercised an unhealthy influence on
minds of people
...
Social conditions were equally depressing
...

3
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Untouchability and
oppression went against dignity of the individual
...

4
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5
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6
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Contributions of socio-religious movements
1
...
For example, in the Brahmo Samaj, it led to the
repudiation of the infallibility of the Vedas
...
These reform movements worked for the welfare of the lower
castes and improving their status in the society
...

3
...

4
...
For
example, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishan Mission and
Theosophical Society
...
Spirit of self-reliance and determination
...
N
...

6
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For
example, Hindu College, Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College
etc
...
Ordinary people also
started interpreting scriptures, an acute departure from traditional
religious dogmas
...
Therefore, the reform movements were revivalist in a sense
...

Limitations of Socio religious movements
1
...

2
...
Many in the Muslim
middle classes went to the extent of turning to the history of West
Asia for their traditions and moments of pride
...
Did not question the traditional role of women
...

4
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5
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Ex:
Brahmo Samaj divided itself into three wings after Ram Mohan
Roy
...

6
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Caste
7
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5
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Balancing modern and religion (mix of ideas from west and east)
1
...

2
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3
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4
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Others contested this on the grounds that this was so
only of a privileged few
...

5
...

6
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At the same time he translated
Julius Huxley
...

2
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The revolt is a product of character and policies of colonial rule
...
Mughals stood as a symbol of political unity of India
...

2
...
So
they want to take experience of leaders to make it successful
...
One of the biggest arsenal was inside the city walls of Delhi
...

So it was important for soldiers to get hold off them
...
Delhi had a secular legacy, so the Muslim soldiers were more
comfortable
...
Delhi is geographically located somewhat in the center of
Northern India, so easy to reach it
...
Delhi also had
better infrastructure to lead a revolt
...
Political causes: Greedy policy of aggrandisement, accompanied
by broken pledges and oaths resulted in loss of prestige
...

2
...
Rampant corruption in the company's administration
...
Economic causes: Heavy taxation under new revenue settlement,
summary evictions, discriminatory tariffs against Indian products,
destruction of traditional handicrafts industry and absence of
industrialisation
...
Socio-Religious Causes: Social legislations like Sati abolition
act, 1829, Widow re-marraige act, 1856, etc
...

5
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Unhappy with emoluments compared to British counter parts
...

6
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5
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Enfield rifle, the greased wrapping paper of the cartridge had to be
bitten off by the soldier
...
British government passed Government of India Act 1858 and
assumed direct responsibility for the administration
...
The era of annexations and expansions ended and British
promised to respect the dignity and rights of the native princes
...
Doctrine of Lapse was abolished
...
The British assured the people that religious and social practices
would be respected and not be interfered
...
The Indian states were henceforth to recognise the paramountcy of
the British crown
...
The Army was thoroughly re-organised and military policy came
to be dominated by idea of division and counterpoise
...

6
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7
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Hence their land and property was confiscated on large
scale
...

8
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Centres of revolt
1
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2
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3
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4
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Jhansi -- Laxmibai
Role of women in 1857 revolt
1
...

2
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4
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reasons stood as stiff resistance to British and had made the
people to wage the struggle
...

A Bheel tribal women called Sursi, inspired his son to arm against
the British though the reason may be other than the soldiers cause
...

Women like Ashgari Begum, Asha Devi, and Bhagavati Devi
resisted the British attempts to exploit in their local areas for
which they welcomed death
...


2
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4
...
Government of India act, 1858 transferred the power from EIC to
British crown
...
Indian councils act, 1861 returned the legislative powers to
provinces of Madras and Bombay, etc
...
Bifurcating central and provincial finances by Lord Mayo in 1870
...
Lord Ripon resolution in 1882
...
Satyendranath Tagore in 1861
...
Exam age brought down
...

Princely states
1
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2
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3
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Policies
1
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2
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3
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Reversal of policy of support to social reforms
...
Social services ignored
...
Half-hearted and inadequate labour legislations introduced
...
Restriction on freedom of press wherever it is helping nationalist
upsurge
...
Racial arrogance
...
Keep other European powers at an Arms length
...
Reach out to natural geographical frontiers for internal cohesion
and defence
...


5
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2
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In fact, the army had always been
volatile with the mutinies taking place at regular intervals since the time
of its inception
...

Changes made
1
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2
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3
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4
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An ideology of martial and non-martial races was
propagated and preference was given to Gurkhas, Sikhs and
Pathans, who earlier assisted the revolution
...
Caste and communal divisions were introduced in each regiment
...
Communal, caste, tribal and regional
consciousness was encouraged to check the growth of nationalist
feelings
...
It was cut off from the rest of population by preventing the reach

3
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of newspapers and journals to it
...
Indian Army became a pure mercenary force, which could fire on
anyone on the order of its masters as evident from the Jallianwala
Bagh massacre where Gurkha Regiment fired upon their
countrymen
...

2
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One regiment could act against
other
...
Even
as late as 1946, the revolting Naval ratings were captured by the
Maratha regiment
...
As the Indians were not in key positions and were in possession of
poor weaponry, their capacity to revolt vanished
...

4
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The feelings of nationalism gradually percolated the army as well and
the troops in South-East Asia during 2nd World War revolted and
played an important role in the struggle for independence
...


Organisations before INC
1
...


Prior to its formation, there were many political organisations
...
, and they had a wider
perspective and a larger agenda
...
The British Indian Association demanded establishment of a
separate legislature of a popular character, separation of executive
from judicial functions etc
...
The Indian Association of Calcutta was founded in 1876 by
Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose, in response to
the conservative and pro-landlord policies of the British
Indian Association
...


The East India Association was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji
in 1866 in London to discuss the questions of Indian interest and
influence public men in England to promote Indian welfare
...
The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by M G
Ranade and others, with the objective of serving as a bridge
between the government and the people
...
The Bombay Presidency Association was started by Badruddin
Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta and K
...
Telang in 1885
...
The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884 by M
...
Subramaniya Aiyer and P
...

These associations campaigned for Indianisation of civil services,
freedom of speech and expression, separation of judiciary from
executive, repeal of Arms Act among others
...

3
...


How British helped in growth of national movement
1
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3
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5
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The British
discouraged cottage industries of India and dumped the Indian market
with goods manufactured in England
...
Railways and telegraph brought masses very close to
each other and strengthened the feeling of nationalism
...
This new class though was minority played a vital role
in igniting the minds of majority
...

India past: Scholars like Max Muller, Roth and RL Mitra aroused
nationals feelings and demolish colonial myths that Indian was inferior
race and bound to servility
...


Misc factors: Ilbert bill, decrease of eligibility in ICS from 21 to 19
years, and contribution of Christian Missionaries who spread lot of
western ideas
...


2
...

Achievements
1
...
Early nationalists like RC Dutt, Dadabhai Naoroji, put
forward the drain theory
...
Moderates were able to create an all-India public opinion
that British rule in India was the major cause of India's
poverty and economic backwardness
...
Constitutional reforms and propaganda in legislature
1
...
Their demands for
constitutional reforms were conceded in 1892 in the form of
the Indian Council Acts, 1892
...
They gave their slogan 'No taxation without representation'
...
They used the councils for ventilating their grievances
...
Gradually, the scope of constitutional demands was widened
and Dadabhai naoroji, Gokhale demanded local selfgovernment like colonies of Canada and Australia
...
General administrative reforms
1
...

2
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They protested against child marriage and
widowhood
...
Defence of civil right
1
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4
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2
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Reasons for failure of moderates
1
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2
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3
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4
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Youth element in vandemataram movement paves
way for extremism
...
People like Savarkar brothers and Chapekar brothers started
advocating extremism
...

Even if the moderates moved away from mainstream politics, the
flames that they had ignited by then, led to a new kind of environment
that facilitated continuance of national movement
...

2
...


October 16, 1905 observed as Raksha Bandhan Day
...

All sections of protestors took inspiration from songs written by
Rabindranath Tagore, Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das,

4
...

6
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Tagore’s Amar Sonar Bangla written
on this occasion was later to inspire the liberation struggle of
Bangladesh
...
It was during
this movement that the concept of Bharat Matha was promoted
...

Movement added untouched women section into protests
...


Morley-Minto Reforms

Revolutionary terrorism
1
...


Sudden withdrawal of non-cooperation movement left large numbers of
youth in dismay
...
Hence they resorted to revolutionary terrorism
which can be broadly divided into Punjab, UP and Bihar group and
Bengal group
...


4
...


Contributions
1
...
Their death defying
heroism created a fear among the British establishment in India
...

2
...
Ex: Yugantar, Kesari, Bharat
mata etc
...
They raised the banner of Indian cause on foreign soils like
Madan Lal Dhingra, Lala har Dayal’s Ghadar, etc
...
Revolutionary movement also contributed towards socialistic
ideas
...

5
...
For example, surrender by
Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt after Meerut conspiracy case
...
Both Punjab and Bengal revolutionaries were secular in their
organisation and working
...
Bengal revolutionaries took active help of women, thus bringing
them into freedom struggle fold
...
The early Indian revolutionaries drew inspiration from the Gita
and the writings of Vivekananda and from the early Russian
revolutionaries, Irish nationalists, and Mazzini, the hero of Italian
liberation
...
They could not reach to the peasant and workers as it was an
urban phenomena
...

2
...

3
...

4
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Outside influence
1
...

2
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7
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3
...

4
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Revolutionary terrorism after 1920s
1
...

2
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Government cash was looted
...
HRA to HSRA in 1928
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

Revolutionary movements in Bengal and Punjab
1
...
Build the cadres by inspiring the youth through their armed
action against colonial government
...
Demoralise the colonial bureaucracy and overthrow the
colonial government by armed revolt
...
Vision of socialist state in the independent India
...
Both the trends showed secular character
...
Differences
1
...
P and Bengal resorted
to individual heroic actions while those in Bengal carried out
their activities in groups
...

2
...
Ex: Pritilal waddedar,
Kalpana Dutta, Sunita chowdary, Shanti Ghosh and Bina
Das
...


Moderate phase of struggle: During this phase, Gandhi relied on

2
...


4
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sending petitions and memorials to authorities in South Africa
...

Phase of passive resistance or Satyagraha: Passive resistance or civil
dis-obedience
...

Setting up Tolstoy farm: Meant to house the families of the
Satyagrahis and to give them a way to sustain themselves
...


Was Khilafat movement a blunder
1
...


3
...


5
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Gandhi saw in the Khilafat movement a
golden opportunity to unite Indian Hindus and Muslims and present a
joint front to the colonial government
...
It failed to raise the religious political
consciousness of Indian Muslims to the higher level of secular political
consciousness
...

The deployment of the Ulema led to the radicalisation of the movement
and the sidelining of moderate leaders of the movement who supported
Gandhi’s creed of non-violence
...
There was also a rise in militant Hindu radicalism in
response to the movement
...

The Khilafat movement set a precedent for future mobilisation of the
Muslim masses by invoking religious symbols and imagery which was
subsequently replicated during the Pakistan movement
...
Hence, although the Khilafat movement began

as a movement to unify Hindus and Muslims, it ended up radicalising
the politico-religious environment
...


2
...
It was formed to vent out the
political steam by British but nationalist were able to use these platform
significantly
...
They used these council for exposing the true nature of British
Government and their indifferent attitude towards Indians
...

2
...
G
...

3
...

4
...
They used these councils to
disseminate modern ideas and to mobilise the masses
...
But restricted social base and their failure to achieve anything
substantive through these councils made the nationalist to raise the
demand for swaraj
...


Swarajists

Communalism
1
...


Communal consciousness arose as a result of the transformation of
Indian society under colonialism and the need to struggle against it
...
Communalism was one of the by products of colonial
underdevelopment
...


resulted in intense competition for government jobs
...
Communities tried to further their narrow
interest by grouping and demanding reservations in government
jobs
...

2
...
Examples are Morley-Minto Act
which provided for separate electorates for Muslims
...
Communalism in history writing
...

4
...
Ex: Wahabi movement
among Muslims, Shudhi movement among Hindus
...
There was also a communal tinge visible in actions of extremists
which polarised the communities
...

6
...
Gandhi slogans of Ramraj etc were the most prominent
examples
...
Communal reaction by majority community like Hindu
Mahasabha, RSS, etc
...
Congress acceptance of separate electorates during Lucknow pact
in order to put forward a joint demand before British
...
The British also took little action against even violent communal
movements
...

Events that entrenched communalism
1
...
The Hindu-Muslim unity was visible in the 1857
mutiny
...

2
...

3
...
Implicitly, they also accepted that the
interests of Hindus and Muslims were different
...

4
...

5
...
By negotiating with communal leaders, the
congress legitimised their politics and made them respectable
...
It did not form a coalition with the Muslim league in
some provinces
...
In other
words, only the British could save their interests in the
government
...

6
...


Simon commission and Nehru report

1931 Karachi resolution
1
...


The Karachi session became memorable for its resolution on the
Fundamental rights and National economic programme
...
Swaraj as conceived by the Congress should include real
economic freedom of the masses
...
The resolution guaranteed basic civil rights of free speech, free
press, free assembly and freedom of association
...
It granted equality before law irrespective of caste, creed or sex
...
Thus
inlaid down India to be a secular state
...
It promised elections on basis of universal adult franchise
...
It promised free and compulsory education
...
It maintained that the culture, language and script of the
minorities and of different linguistic areas shall be protected
...
It promised substantial reduction in rent and revenue, exemption
from rent in case of uneconomic holdings, and relief of
agricultural indebtedness and control of usury
...
It also promised better conditions for workers including a living
wage, limited hours of work and protection of women workers
...
It also conferred the right to organise and form unions to workers
and peasants
...
Nationalisation of key industries and services, railways, etc
...

The resolution was to remain in essence the basic political and
economic programme of the Congress in later years
...


3
...


New forces during 1920s
...

2
...

Various forms of civil disobedience
1
...

2
...
In Tamil Nadu,
Rajagopalachari led Vedaranyam March
...

3
...

4
...

5
...


4
...


stations, etc
...
Sarojini Naidu lead a raid on Dharsana salt works
...
A campaign was organised in Bihar and Bengal against
Chowkidara tax
...
In Gujarat, a determined no-tax movement was organised
...
In Maharastra, Karnataka, central provinces there was defiance
against forest laws
...
In Assam, a powerful agitation was organised against infamous
Cunningham circular which forced students to furnish assurances
of good behaviour
...
Rani Gaidinlu of Nagaland raised a banner of revolt against
foreign rule
...
Women picketing
...
Students played most prominent part in boycott of foreign cloth
and liquor
...
Petty traders active in Tamil Nadu and Punjab
...
Tribals in central provinces, Maharashtra and Karnataka
...
Workers participated in Sholapur
...
Peasants were active in UP, Bihar and Gujarat
...
The pact can be considered as a strategic break as was the
withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement in 1922
...

2
...

Government could have crushed the movement any time
ferociously
...
The lands of peasants were returned after the Congress Ministry
assumed office in Bombay in 1937
...
National confidence increased as the mighty British Government
and national leaders came on an equal footing to sign a pact
...

Controversy

1
...


3
...


Gandhiji refused to make the Pact conditional on the commutation
of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his comrades
...
It is alleged that Gandhiji was apprehensive of the mass
movement taking a radical turn
...
Land
which is already sold to a third party, and several other
conditionalities
...


Government of India act, 1935
1
...


3
...


The Government of India Act 1935 is said to have been the longest
serving British Act of Parliament ever enacted by that time
...
Subjects to be administered were divided into reserved and
transferred subjects
...
Bicameral legislature
...
Council of states to be permanent body
...
Three lists for legislation
...
Religion based and class-based electorates were further extended
...
GG had residuary powers
...
Provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy
...
Separate local level identity
...
Independent financial powers
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

Limitations
1
...
Also,

2
...

4
...

6
...

In provinces, Governor still had extensive powers in the form of
veto over legislations, refusing assent, etc
...

The act enfranchised only 14% of Indian population
...

The act provided a rigid constitution with no possibility of internal
growth
...


2
...


The Government of India act, 1935 provided for direct provincial
elections
...

Legislative record
1
...
Restrictions and ban on press,
certain books, newspapers, and illegal organisations was lifted
...
Agrarian legislations, tenancy acts provided respite to the peasants
in respect of limitations on rent, tenancy rights and also other
payments
...
The Industrial disputes act improved the security of working
labour
...

Introduction of Industrial committee to assess the labour’s wage
demand
...
Measures for welfare of Harijans like temple entry, education,
etc
...

5
...

6
...

Administrative records
1
...

2
...


Change in land revenue system, though not fully eliminated
zamindari, but restored the land rights to the peasant and not to
land lords
...
Morale of ICS officers being enhanced with congress ministries
work
...

5
...

Evaluation
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...
but in
other spheres they did very well
...
The ministries did not have adequate powers
...
There was financial crunch as lion share was appropriated by
Government of India
...
Zamindars also had to be conciliated as they have important role
in further struggle
...

4
...
War
clouds started mongering within an year of formation of
ministries
...
The reactionary second chamber consisting of princes,
moneylenders, stood in the way of many legislation
...
The agrarian structure was too complicated and complex
...


4
...


Individual satyagraha
1
...


3
...


5
...

To show that the silence of the Indians was not due to their weakness,
and simultaneously not to hamper Britain’s war efforts against the
Fascist powers, Gandhiji decided to launch satyagraha on an individual
basis, by carefully choosing his trusted members as the Individual
satyagrahis
...
To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness
...
To express people’s feeling that they are not interested in the war
and that they made no distinction between Nazism and double
autocracy that ruled in India
...

3
...

Contribution
1
...

2
...
It was an
expression of Indian antipathy towards the British double
standards and the War
...
In an effort to placate people, Linlithgow increased Indian
members in war advisory council
...
It made India’s stand clear to international leaders
...
This led to cripps
mission
...
The movement failed to create a lasting impact, as after being
released form the jail, several members of the CWC passed a
resolution to abandon the movement, in return of the promise
from Britain, of full power transfer after the war
...

Congress demands before the war

1
...


It would cooperate in the war if a) freedom was given after the
war, b) some form of genuinely responsible government was
immediately setup
...


Cripps mission
1
...


Why cripps mission was sent
1
...
So, Indian
support became crucial
...
Pressure from allies like USA, China to seek Indian cooperation
...

3
...

4
...

5
...
The liberals urged that India should be
accorded equal status with other dominions
...
Offer of dominion status instead of complete independence
...
Right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of
national unity
...
Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power
...

4
...

5
...

6
...


QIM agitation

1
...


3
...
Failure of cripps mission
...
Public discontent against war time hardships
...
A feeling of imminent British collapse
...
Indian leadership desire to prepare masses for possible Japanese
invasion
...
Public on rampage, attacks on symbols of authority
...
Underground activity
...
Parallel governments in Balia, Tamluk, Satara, etc
...
Sections participating included youth, women, workers, peasants,
etc
...
The pattern of activity of the underground movement was
generally that of organising the disruption of physical transport
infrastructure and tele-communications
...
There were also a few attacks on government and police officials
and police informers
...
Underground networks kept up popular morale by continuing to a
line of command
...

4
...

5
...

For example, Usha Mehta organised congress Radio, a secret
station
...
Parallel governments were established in the underground
networks
...
Students acted as couriers
...
Government officials, including those in
the police, passed on crucial information about impending arrests
...
Thus, the underground network, even though did not create a large
impact, but ensured the continuity of the movement and widened

4
...


6
...

INA agitation was land mark
1
...

The popularity and intensity of the campaign for the release of
INA prisoners was conducted was unprecedented
...

2
...
Municipal Committees, Indians abroad and
Gurdwara committees subscribed liberally to INA funds
...
It also saw participation of diverse social groups and political
parties
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

Students, youth, workers, etc
...
Instances of hartals, processions,
attacks of authorities, etc
...
The matter went out
if control for British when Calcutta hartals and Royal Indian Navy
strike occurred
...
Accepting inevitable
...
Immediate transfer of power
...
Partition plan ruled out independence for princely states
...
It was only final act of process step-by-step concessions
...

Why British withdrawal seemed imminent
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...


revolt
...
For good future of IndoBritish relations
...


2
...
Credited with achieving transfer of power in a limited time and
within limited resources through formulation of Mountbatten plan
and its implementation
...
He engaged in a personal dialogue with reluctant princes, such as
the Nawab of Bhopal, who he asked through a confidential letter
to sign the instrument of Accession making Bhopal part of India
...
He pointed out that the Indian subcontinent was one economic
entity, and that the states would suffer most if the link were
broken and difficulties that princes would face maintaining law
and order
...
He appointed Radcliffe, a person not so well about India, to draw
a partition line
...

3
...


5
...

Lord Mountbatten has been criticised for hastening the
independence process unduly and recklessly leading to vast
disruption and loss of life
...

Though the positive role of Mountbatten needs to be
acknowledged, it must be remembered that Lord Mountbatten was
an officer of British Government and was serving their interests
...


2
...


4
...


Partitions are often brutal
...
North Korea and South
Korea are constantly in a state of a shadow war
...
The fight among brothers
and neighbours is nastier than fight among strangers
...
To
enable a religious partition, millions had to be moved
...

Lack of law and order: There was complete collapse of institutions of
governance
...
The top
leadership of the Indian parties were involved in negotiations regarding
independence while many Indian civil servants in the affected provinces
feared for their own lives and property
...

Lahore was surrounded by Hindu villages and should have gone to
India, but gone to Pakistan due to its importance in Islamic culture
...
Such controversial moves, left millions to be left on
the wrong side of the border
...
When the borders were finally

6
...
Thus, there was high tension on
both sides on the eve of partition
...
This left a lot of western farmers in
pain and anger
...
This pent up anger kept escalating
the violence
...


2
...


1880 to First World War
1
...
After
1878, the British undertook a number of expansionist expeditions
which were opposed by the nationalists
...

2
...

World War I
1
...

2
...
In 1920, the Congress urged
the people not to join the Army to fight in the West
...
In 1925, the congress condemned the dispatch of Indian Army to
suppress the Chinese nationalist army under Sun-Yat-Sen
...
Dadabhai Naoroji attended the Hague session of the International
Socialist Congress
...

3
...

4
...


5
...

5
...
He saw
Russia as a bulwark against imperialism
...
Nehru came to understand the international character of US
imperialism during his European experience
...

After 1936 (Anti-Fascism)
1
...
The nationalists saw imperialism and fascism as organs
of capitalism
...

2
...

3
...
The Congress also sent a medical mission under Dr
Atal to China
...
On the Palestine issue, the Congress lent support to the
Palestinians
...
It also opposed the partition of
Palestine
...
Indian National congress opened a foreign department to be in
touch with the other peoples movements
...
Dadabhai Naoroji attended the Hague session of socialist
international (2nd international) and outlined India’s support
against war and imperialism
...
Lajpat Rai also made contacts with American socialists during his
visit from 1914 to 1918
...

4
...

5
...


In 1939, the Japanese attack on China was condemned and a
medical team under was sent to China
...

7
...
It
sympathised with the Jews but was against partition of Palestine
...
India also lent support to fight against racial discrimination in
South Africa
...
Polity based on representative democracy and full range of civil
liberties and Popular sovereignty formed the basis of INM which
later became the very essence of Indian political thinking
...
The practice of non-violence helped in forming the basic temper
with which Indian political system was to function in future i
...

3
...
, including evils of untouchability and
helped create an egalitarian atmosphere which not only helped in
securing reservation for SC/STs in constituent assembly but their
overall upliftment
...
Secularism was a very basic tenet on which INM worked which
later became the pillar of the Indian polity, society and culture
...
Against colonialism: India expedited the independence of
Indonesia from the Dutch
...
Against racism: India supported for the cause of racial equality
in south Africa
...
Independence in foreign policy: India stood independent even
during cold war era
...
India took independent stand on international issues
based upon its discretion but not upon compulsion (Korean war,
Vietnam war and Egypt crisis)
...
International peace: NAM promoted peace in international arena
and Panchsheel promoted peace with neighbourhood
...
No first use is our
nuclear policy
...
India for ethics in international setting: Liberation of
6
...


7
...

Economic critique of British rule
1
...


3
...

5
...


7
...


9
...
Charter
Act 1813 allowed one-way trade for the British citizens
...

Impoverishment of peasantry which led to ruralisation of India
...
Government did not invest in improvement of land
...
By 1815, half
the land of the Bengal had passed into new hands
...

Stagnation and deterioration of agriculture
...
The New Zamindars had no roots in the villages
...
It was a forced process
...

But most of them were foreign owned
...
The industrial development
was characterised by a lopsided pattern -- Core and heavy industries
and power generation were neglected
...

Rise of Indian bourgeoisie
...

Economic drain
...
The major components were salaries and pensions of
officials, interests on loan taken by Indian government from abroad,
profits on foreign investments in India, etc
...


Education policy of British
1
...


3
...


The geographic spread of its rule rendered the continued import of
Europeans to man the administration unsustainable and impractical
...
Hence, for the first time, the Charter Act of
1813 sanctioned one lakh/year for promoting education in the country
...
It was also employed for producing Indians to man the
subordinate positions in the administration and as a means to legitimize
the British rule
...
The money sanctioned under Charter Act of 1813 and 1833 (one
lakh and ten lakh respectively) was grossly inadequate for
promoting education
...
Macaulay's Minutes, 1835 completely stopped support to any
vernacular language
...
Downward Infiltration Theory was aimed at educating a handful
of Indians, who would act as a link between the British and the
masses
...

4
...

5
...

However, the effort to create a class of 'loyal working class' ignited
Indian minds; it aroused national consciousness — freedom fighters
were inspired by Irish and Russian revolutions, and imbibed modern
ideas of democracy, liberty, equality and fraternity
...


Judiciary under British

Indian states
1
...


3
...


Struggle for equality (1740 -1765): East India Company captured
Arcot in 1751 and asserted the political identity over India ending
French hold over except for Pondicherry
...

Reflected in wars with Marathas and with Mysore for creating the
buffer zone to defend company's frontiers
...

Indian states surrendered all kind of sovereignty and their external
administration, now they had control of only internal administration of
their states
...


6
...
The Act of 1858 transferred powers into the hands of the crown
that is queen of Britain and known as Kaiser-i-Hind
...

Integration and Merger: Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir
...


2
...
Erosion of the traditional forms of authority and
increased economic pressure were two basic reasons for these uprisings
...
The major cause of all these civil rebellions taken as a whole was
the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy,
administration and land revenue system
...

2
...
This led to growing
indebtedness or into selling their lands
...

3
...

Thus they had personal scores to settle with the new rulers
...
The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the
dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the
poor
...

5
...

6
...
The scholarly and priestly were also

3
...


active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule
...
These movements erupted in the early phase of colonial
expansion
...

2
...

Movements by deposed rulers and Zamindars
1
...
The problems were
accentuated by the exacting land revenues
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
The conflict in this case, as in others, was on the question of
the collection of taxes, rather on, who should collect it, the
traditional classes or the Company Officials
...
Ramosi uprising, protest against heavy assessment of land revenue
and the harsh methods of its collection
...

2
...

Causes of Tribal movements
1
...


Introduction of the notion of private property where land could be
bought, sold, mortgaged which led to loss of land by the tribals
...
Work of Christian Missionaries
...
The establishment of the Forest department in 1864, Government
Forest Act (1865) and Indian Forest Act in 1878 together
established complete government monopoly over Indian forest
land
...
Restrictions were imposed on the previously
sanctioned timber and grazing facilities
...
Extension of settled agriculture led to influx of non tribals in the
tribal areas
...
Some of the tribal uprising took place in reaction to the effect of
the landlords to impose taxes on the customary use of timber and
grazing facilities, police exaction, etc
...

Under Sindhu and Kanha, the movement was to expel outsiders (Dikus)
and Christian missionaries
...
The tribal chiefs rose up
against the erosion of Khuntkatti System or Joint tenures
...

Ahom Revolt
...


3
...


5
...


Peasant movements
1
...


The nature of peasant movements kept on changing with the time
during our national movement
...
Unreasonably high rents and protection to the landlords and
moneylenders
...
Arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour
...
Exploitation of the already overburdened farmers by the
Zamindars and moneylenders
...
Harsh systems of the British
...


4
...


payment of loans etc
...
Transferability of land which deprived the traditional occupancy
rights
...
Lack of awareness of clauses leading to sudden loss of land and
work, leading to collective uprisings
...
The peasants during this phase organized themselves and elected
their own leader
...
They collectively raised a huge army equipping themselves with
primitive weapons
...
Peasants attacked courts and looted stores
...
Prominent places became the centres of mobilization
...
Santhal Rebellion (1855)
...
This phase was characterised by the sporadic growth of peasant
movements in the absence of proper leadership
...
The periodic
recurrence of famines aggravated the situation
...
Ex: The Indigo revolt (1859-60), Pabna agrarian leagues (1870s
and 1880s), the Deccan riots of 1875 against the moneylenders
were few examples of this stage
...
In ryotwari areas, the struggle took the form of entire peasantry
against policies of the British
...

4
...

They ranged from struggle against forest laws, exploitation of
money lenders, incoming of indentured labourers brought by
British for their plantations
...
In the north-eastern mountains and other politically strategic
terrains struggle often took the form of sharp military-politico
confrontations
...
There was a lack of an adequate understanding of colonialism
...


money lenders who were just pawns in the colonial rule
...
They did not possess a new ideology and struggles occurred
within the framework of the old societal order lacking a positive
conception of an alternative society
...
They grew out of narrow regional grievances and were mostly
spontaneous without any planning
...
They also lacked an effective leader who can organise them
...
Caste played a significant role in the mobilisation of peasants and
religious overtones were also prevalent
...
This phase was marked by the emergence of the class conscious
peasant organisations
...
The
programme of the Sabha reflected the aspirations and needs of the
peasantry
...
Civil disobedience movement gave a great push to peasant
movements, as it blended peasants demands with national goals
...
Formation of congress ministries
in 1937 heralded a new era in peasant movement
...
Political pressure of the Kisan Sabha succeeded in the Faizpur
Congress and paved the way for the formulation of the Congress
agrarian programme
...

4
...
Ex: Kisan Sabha movement, Eka movement,
Mappila revolt, Bardoli satyagraha, etc
5
...
In
Andhra Pradesh, an anti-settlement agitation against zamindari
zulum in 1927
...
In Punjab, a no revenue campaign
was accompanied by the emergence of kisan sabhas that
demanded a reduction in land revenue
...
In UP, norevenue soon turned into no-rent
...


8
...


pay their taxes and went hijrat to neighbouring Baroda territory to
escape government repression
...
The years since independence have seen agrarian struggles of
enormous variety, ranging from the legendary Telangana
movement, Tebhaga movement, and the PEPSU tenant’s
movement which continued from the pre-independence years, to
the Naxalite or Maoist movement in the late sixties and the New
farmers movements of the eighties
...
A shift is visible from issues arising out of colonialism and
feudalism to issues arising out of the Green Revolution and other
processes of agrarian change including the aspirations aroused by
the struggle for land reforms
...
The peasants in Telangana suffered extreme feudal type
oppression at the hands of Jagirdars and deshmukhs, some of
whom owned thousands of acres of land
...

2
...
So, they started a
movement for integration under the leadership of the State
Congress
...
Camps were set up on the borders of Hyderabad with
Maharashtra, coastal Andhra, etc
...

4
...

New Farmers’ Movements
1
...

2
...


payments for agricultural products and over pricing of consumer
and industrial goods
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...
Thus, they cannot
be brought into the category of new social movements
...
The new farmers movements are not all that new as similar
demands were made by peasant organisations earlier as well
...
While it is true that none of the organizations were started by
political parties, it is also true that over time they have inexorably
got linked to politics
...
The single point of agitation of these movements was better
returns for farmers in terms of price for the produce
...
Accordingly, the
upward price swings robbed these movements of their raison
d’être
...
A major weakness of these movements was their failure to create
an identity for farmers
...
But
parties have varied interests and are guided by their own political
interests
...
Further, farmers are now leaving agriculture
and allied activities for other sectors
...

4
...
The farmers of one region no
longer identify with the causes of the farmers from other regions
...

5
...

This has to some extent shrunk the political space that was
exclusively available to peasant movements, who were hitherto
seen as the sole vanguards of peasant causes
...
Farmers of Haryana, Punjab and western UP had benefited in the
late 1960s from green revolution
...
The cash crop market
faced a crisis in mid-eighties due to the beginning of the process
of liberalisation of Indian economy
...
The BKU demanded higher government floor prices for sugarcane
and wheat, abolition of restrictions on the inter-state movement of
farm produce, guaranteed supply of electricity at reasonable rates,
waiving of repayments due on loans to farmers and the provision
of a government pension for farmers
...
Similar demands were made by other farmers organisations in the
country
...

4
...
Most of the BKU members belonged to a
single community
...

5
...
Funds, resources and activities of BKU were
mobilised through these networks
...


11
...
The farmers movement became one of the most
successful social movements of the eighties in this respect
...
In the 1970s and 1980s, many sections of the society became
disillusioned with the functioning of political parties
...
In the long run the disillusionment was also
about economic policies of the state and increasing socioeconomic inequalities
...

2
...

Because of the voluntary nature of their social work, many of
these organisations came to be known as voluntary organisations
...
Similarly farmers complained of neglect of agriculture sector by
forming organisations like BKU
...
Women movements like anti-arrack (liquor) movement, antidowry movement got a new thrust during this period
...
In 1990s, MKSS organised public hearings, where the
administration was asked to explain its stand in public
...
Later on, the
movement gave rise to RTI
...
Yet the real life impact of these movements on the nature of
public policies seems to be very limited
...
Thus it becomes
possible to ignore their reasonable demands
...

6
...


Labour movements

Earlier nationalists were also indifferent to labour cause because they
believed that labour legislations would affect competitive edge enjoyed
by Indian-owned industries
...


Trade union act, 1926 -- Recognised trade unions as legal associations
...

Trade disputes act, 1929 -- Ban on strikes in public utility services
...


Subash Chandra Bose

BR Ambedkar
1
...


3
...


5
...


He led millions of oppressed to a life of self respect, dignity, and
responsibility
...

Babasaheb began the revival of Buddhism in India that has grown
tremendously after his death, and continues to grow today among his
countless followers
...

He was the chairperson of the Constitution drafting committee
...
Ambedkar was in respect of
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined
in the Constitution of India
...

He did a great job in removing social evils in India
...
He wanted to educate them for a better life
...

He worked for the improvement of the status of women in India
...
It got passed in 1956 and was key for
Hindu Women’s upliftment as it abolished polygamy, granted equal
property rights, etc
...
Amartya Sen who is a Nobel Prize winner in
economics had said that Ambedkar is his father in economics
...


2
...
Served in Bombay legislative council and Imperial
Legislative council
...

Supported the modern education, and in fact was first to ask for it
...

4
...


Asked for free press, social reforms, committed to free speech and
constructive criticism
...

Supported Gandhi during his stay in Africa, which indirectly helped
Gandhi to evolve strategy
...


Savarkar
1
...


3
...
This perception blindfolds his essential sacrifice and
contribution to India’s freedom cause
...
Association with revolutionary activities via Abhinav Bharat
ushered vigour, mobilised youth and broke the infallible nature of
Britishers
...
He wrote a book called history of the war of Indian independence
and analysed the circumstances of 1857 uprising by describing
British rule as unjust and oppressive
...
Supported and popularised Swadeshi and Boycott movements
during educational days
...

4
...

5
...

6
...
This approach assisted
in society to move from irrational beliefs and rituals to singular
cause of India
...
He believed in reconversion of Hindus who were converted into
Muslims and Christians by missionaries
...
Muslim league along with Hindu Mahasabha and other religious

4
...

Savarkar sacrifice during his jail time and his constant devotion to
India’s nationalism is essential predecessor to India’s successful
freedom attainment
...


2
...


4
...
He along with Ram Manohar Lohia set an example of opposition
in democracy influencing constructively the ruling power
...

Contributions to Pre-independent India
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

Contributions Post independent India
1
...
After independence he gave
Sarvodaya Plan for economic upliftment of all classes
...
He also gave his support to Vinoba Bhave in his Bhoodan
movement
...
JP’s most enduring contribution to post independent India was his
call for 'Total Revolution' against the misrule of the then Central
Government
...
He found the People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) in 1976
to uphold Civil liberties
...
He posthumously
awarded with Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his contribution
...


2
...

4
...


6
...
He showed that India
has much to contribute to world culture
...

He played a major role in unification of Hinduism
...

First time in Indian Hinduism history Swami Vivekananda allowed
Sudra (the 4th varna) to join as monks in ashram and worship in temple
...

They were considered impure due to menstrual cycle they incur
...

Defending Hinduism was one of the important work of his life
...
He
raised his voice against this and clarified the concepts of Hinduism
thereby, giving self-pride to followers of Hinduism
...


Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya
1
...

3
...


5
...

The University has students all across the fields such as the arts,
sciences, engineering and technology
...

He had also founded a highly influential English newspaper, The
Leader, published from Allahabad in 1909
...
He became the Indian National Congress (INC) president four
times in 1909, 1918, 1930 and 1932
...


slavery
...
He took part in
the Salt Satyagraha, which was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930
...


Gandhi
1
...


SA ordeal
1
...
This was the
basis in which he carried entire freedom struggle
...
He understood the irrational founding of discrimination when he
was thrown out of train
...

3
...
This was
great leadership lesson he learnt in South Africa
...
Life in South Africa has gifted him opportunity to inhale the
thoughts of great global leaders such as Socrates, Plato, Tolstoy,
Ruskin etc
...

5
...

6
...

Gandhi vs British
1
...
So his
tools of struggle was against the might (force) of britishers, at the
same time not taking the advantage of their plight
...
For example, during the World Wars and Boer wars Gandhiji
supported Britishers because he doesn’t want to get independence

3
...

3
...

4
...

Gandhi’s political thoughts
1
...
He suggested
incorporating this concept not only in political sphere but also in
social, economic and other spheres
...

2
...
Gandhian idea of Swarajya is
influenced by Upanishads, Ramcharitmanas and also by ideas of
Aurobindo Ghosh
...
Satyagraha: Satyagraha meant a fight for truth
...
It is
inspired by the ideals of Swami Vivekananda who exhorted
individuals to rise up, awake and not stop until the goal is
achieved
...

4
...

Even medium state according to him needed some sort of coercion
and policing
...

5
...

Gandhi believed in the idea of class cooperation in place of class
conflict
...


development are well dispersed
...

How Gandhi could unite people
1
...
Not just Indians, but, everyone
...
The British weavers never let him apologise and
actually cheered his boycott
...
Most political leaders either stay off the religion or use religion
for divisive ends
...
He actively used the religion
to unite people
...
By the time Mahatma Gandhi entered the Indian politics in 1914,
he had already spent 21 years in the South African civil rights
movement
...
Then he spent years touring
India and observed from a very perceptive lens
...
Mahatma adhered to truth no matter what comes
...
He was an absolute novelty (for a lawyer turned
politician)
...
There is an immense power in simplicity
...
Mahatma kept the whole
movement very simple and transparent
...

6
...
He made people create salt in the coastal areas
...
He made people do very simple
things as mark of protest
...
Other leaders talked, sermoned or threw stones
...

7
...
He
had little interest in parliaments, assemblies, roundtables and bills
...

8
...

There was a complete harmony between thought, words and
action
...
Gandhi did not celebrate

hard earned independence
...
He was
in a corner, saving people from crime and violence
...
His mission was not done yet
...

2
...

4
...


6
...
Gandhiji was a
devout nationalist, a trained lawyer and a great humanitarian
...
Gandhi
instead preferred social ground work and mass mobilisations to
politically educate the people
...
Gandhi
did not have a political career like this
...
Gandhi, on the other hand, wanted both
...
Gandhiji’s command in masses, his integrity,
simplicity and commitment kept British officials on the toes
...
Hence, he did not become a
member of Gokhale’s famous Servants of India society
...

2
...

Contributions
1
...
He
acted with determination, vision and statesmanship and made
India united without any bloodshed
...
Kashmir: Swift action in Kashmir and Lakshadweep thereby
forcing back the Pakistani forces from Kashmir and integrating
Lakshadweep in India
...
He also protected the privileges of Indian civil service
officers who were deemed to be comprised on account of their
previous service to the play
...
Minority rights: He played crucial role in constituent assembly
for supporting the fundamental rights to minorities
...
Cooperative: He helped in establishing Kheda milk cooperative
society and promoted liberalised industrial policy resolution of
1948 thus focusing on economic self-reliance
...
China: He acted as a balancing wheel to Nehru’s over emphasis
on Sino-Indian relations as he foresaw the dangers of Chinese
occupation of Tibet
...
Patel is sometimes criticised for promoting the capitalist class and
opposing Nationalisation of industries
...

2
...
According to
him, Patel harsh attitude in dealing with muslims sow the seeds of
partition
...
He did not desist from using force or police action for integration
of states into India
...

4
...

Patel vs Nehru
1
...

Nehru did not like satisfying the egos of Princes by measures like
Privy purses, etc
...

2
...
Patel recognized that China always had expansionist
tendencies and advised Nehru to proceed with caution
...


3
...


3
...


Bhai’, an idea shattered in 1962 war
...
While, Nehru
had disregard and pessimistic attitude towards civil service
...
Although Sardar was also
secular, but sometimes he was associated with some communal
groups
...


Panchsheel
1
...


3
...


5
...
These principles were born to ensure a world where nations can
co-exist and prosper together in peace and harmony
...
Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and
sovereignty
...
Mutual non-aggression
...
Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
...
Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit
...
Peaceful coexistence
...
The five
principles of Panchsheel provide a basis for not only interstate relations
but also the construction of a new international order
...
Ex: As China is now a
bigger power, it is all the more appropriate that it displays sensitivity
and reciprocity in multilateral institutions like the UNSC and the
BRICS
...

Similarly the two countries should work together in concert on issues
such as climate change and fighting the menace of terrorism
...

Princely states
1
...


3
...


The government’s approach towards princely states was guided by
following considerations
...
The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to
become part of the Indian Union
...

2
...

How was it blood less
1
...

2
...

Mountbatten, in a speech to chamber of princes, finally persuaded
the Princes
...
Privy purses, upholding succession to throne, flying of personal
flags were used as tools of persuasion
...
States not ready to accede to India where made to sign instrument
of accession through diplomacy
...
Ruler of Kashmir was made to sign
instrument of accession before offering any military assistance
...
Prolonged negotiations with French led to Pondicherry becoming
part of India
...
People organised a popular movement in Junagadh, forced the
Nawab to flee and established a provisional government
...
A plebiscite was held in
the state which went overwhelmingly in favour of joining India
...
In case of Hyderabad, Nizam of Hyderabad denied accession to

5
...


India
...
In 1948, the Indian army
moved into Hyderabad and freed it from Nizam control
...

3
...

4
...
On gaining independence India
opened negotiations with them for the transfer of territories
...
Integration of French territories was done peacefully
...

2
...

Portuguese enclaves
1
...
Volunteers of
United Front of Goans and occupied Dadra and Nagar Haveli in
1954 and displaced Portuguese rule
...
Goa, Daman and Diu: Satyagraha and revolts by Indian
nationalists were suppressed by Portuguese government
...
But Portugal resisted all overtures from India
...


Linguistic states
1
...


Our national movement had promised the linguistic principle as the
basis of formation of states
...

Things changed after Independence and Partition
...


4
...


6
...
It was also felt that this would draw attention away from
other social and economic challenges that the country faced
...
Sheer
mismanagement of the administration caused the death of Potti
Sreeramulu, leading to widespread protests and finally the creation of
Andhra Pradesh
...
In later years sub-regions raised demands for separate states on
the basis of a separate regional culture or complaints of regional
imbalance in development
...
Language gives a mathematical basis for division
...

2
...
Above all, the linguistic
states underlined the acceptance of the principle of diversity
...
Led to better interaction among people of the states and with their
democratically elected governments
...

4
...
A non
English or non Hindi speaking person can aspire to become a
political leader, which was difficult earlier
...
Led to consolidation of the federal structure
...

6
...

But reorganisation did not resolve all the problems relating to linguistic
conflicts
...
Linguistic chauvinism also finds
occasional expression
...


8
...

Lessons from regional conflict
1
...
We have seen that
regional aspirations ranging from demands of statehood and
economic development to autonomy and separation keep coming
up
...
First and the most elementary lesson is that regional aspirations
are very much a part of democratic politics
...
A large
and diverse democracy like India must deal with regional
aspirations on a regular basis
...

3
...
The example of Mizoram shows how political settlement
can resolve the problem of separatism effectively
...
The third lesson is about the significance of power sharing
...
Besides that,
groups and parties from the region need to be given share in
power at the state level
...

5
...

If some states remain poor and others develop rapidly, it leads to
regional imbalances and inter-regional migrations
...
Finally, these cases make us appreciate the farsightedness of the
makers of our Constitution in dealing with questions of diversity
...

While most of the states have equal powers, there are special
provisions for some states like J&K and the states in the NorthEast
...
Therefore, regional aspirations are not
encouraged to espouse separatism
...

Community Development Programme (CDP)
1
...


3
...


5
...


Programme was designed for rural upliftment
...
The emphasis was on self reliance and self help by people,
popular participation and responsibility
...
Below the BDO were appointed the workers called Village Level
Workers (VLW) who were responsible to keep in touch with 10-12
villages
...

The programme achieved considerable results in better seeds,
fertilisers, and so on, resulting in agricultural development, greater food
production, increased construction of roads, tanks, schools and PHCs,
etc
...
It did not simulate self help,
instead it increased expectations from and reliance on the Government
...

Limitations of panchayat raj (1952)
1
...

2
...
Panchayats were also politicized
and used by politicians to gather factional support in the villages
...


2
...


4
...
They are allowed to retain certain
private property, and given a grant in heredity or government
allowance, measured on the basis of the extent, revenue and potential of
the merging state
...
Yet, hereditary
privileges were not consonant with the principles of equality and socioeconomic justice laid down in the Constitution of India
...

Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that
the government should abolish privy purses
...

In the 1971 election, the Constitution was amended to remove legal
obstacles for abolition of privy purses
...


2
...


4
...

It was started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand and by the 1980s the movement had spread throughout
India and led to the formulation of people sensitive forest policies,
which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far as the
Vindhyas and the Western Ghats
...
It is being seen increasingly as an eco-feminism
movement
...

Women became primary stakeholders in a majority of the afforestation,
they set up cooperatives to guard local forests, and organised fodder
production at rates conducive to local environment
...


6
...


8
...

It occurred at a time when there was hardly any environmental
movement in the developing world and it inspired many future
environmentalists, environmental protests and movements by helping to
slow down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase
ecological awareness and demonstrate the viability of people power
...

Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and
broadened the agenda of the movement to cover other social issues
...
They demanded control over
natural resources like land, water, and forests
...

Chipko movement also expressed the resentment of hill villagers
against a distant government headquartered in the plains that seemed
indifferent and hostile to their concerns
...


Why didn’t NATO react when India captured Goa
1
...


3
...


5
...
The new
administration in USA was focused on Bay of Pigs operation in Cuba
...

Most of the world from newly liberated colonies in Africa, West Asia,
East Asia to USSR and Soviet bloc countries to even China supported
India
...

USA was waging a war in Vietnam
...
For most, Goa was too unimportant
compared to the action in other places
...
Thanks to USSR
Veto, UN Security Council refused to vote against India
...


Salazar (dictator of Portugal) was not a likeable figure and as an
autocratic dictator he didn’t have many friends in the liberal minded
members of NATO
...

2
...


4
...

India’s mistakes
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

China’s mistakes
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

Consequences
1
...
India had to
approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to
tide over the crisis
...
It induced a sense of national humiliation and at the same time

3
...

5
...

Weaknesses in Army clearly came out
...

India and China relations damaged and a sense of mutual
suspicion started from then on
...
The process of its reorganisation
began soon after the China war
...


Tashkent declaration
1
...


3
...
Apart from loss of life and costly military
equipment, resources urgently needed for economic development were
drained and defence budgets mounted again
...
Peace had been achieved
by the intervention of the great powers who pushed the two nations to a
cease fire for fears the conflict could escalate and draw in other
powers
...
The Tashkent conference, under UN, American and Soviet
pressure, compelled India to give away the conquered region in
Pakistan and maintain the 1949 ceasefire line in Kashmir
2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...


5
...

Lessons learnt from 1965 war
1
...
India’s had passed its first major test of secularism as
their was no communal trouble during the war
...

2
...
The war experience helped in
consolidating organisation and leadership
...
Since 1965, there were marked changes in the way government
coordinated with the 3 service chiefs
...
Strengths and weaknesses of the three divisions of military were
understood and worked upon, which proved crucial during the
1971 war
...

5
...

It also made the Indian political leadership more mature in dealing with
major powers to safeguard India’s interests diplomatically
...


2
...


It happened in 1971
...
When people took to streets, Pakistan army
launched massive attack, suppressing the revolt
...

The Pakistan Army, in collusion with religious extremist militias
(Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams), engaged in the systematic genocide
and atrocities on Bengali nationalists, intellectuals, youth and religious
minorities
...
Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan
dominated the divided country politically and received more
money from the common budget
...


5
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
But Urdu was prevalent only in western region of
Pakistan while dominant language in east Pakistan was Bengali
...

Operation Searchlight
1
...

2
...

Why did India join war
1
...
It also lead to political instability
...

2
...

3
...
It would reduce our expenditure on army on the
eastern front
...
Indian Govt not only gave sanctuary to Bangladesh Govt in exile,
but the Indian army actively trained Mukti Bahini and also gave
aid in terms of men and material
...
Pakistan launched military attack on India in the western front,
which started India’s active engagement in war with Pakistan
...

2
...


After the 1971 war of Bangladesh independence, India signed Simla
agreement with Pakistan to reduce tensions and put an end to the war
...
India realised that a mutually arrived at Indo-Pak settlement was
necessary for durable peace
...

2
...
US and UK sent their forces in aid of Pakistan
...

3
...
India had to release the 90000 POW to
maintain its image and not to antagonise the world community
...
China vetoed UN resolutions to recognise the sovereignty of
Bangladesh citing the Prisoners of War (PoW)
...

5
...
From India’s perspective it was
much better to deal with their civilian government than to deal
with their military
...
The agreement was the result of resolve of both the countries to
put an end to the conflict and confrontation that have hitherto
marred their relations
...

Terms of agreement
1
...

2
...

3
...
Also both countries accepted the UN charter to
govern the 2 countries relationship
...
India also agreed to return the prisoners of war to Pakistan but this
was to be contingent upon a Bangladesh-Pakistan agreement
...
The agreement gave recognition to an independent Bangladesh
...

Why it was a lost opportunity
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
There was no explicit
mention of Kashmir issue
...


4
...


2
...

4
...
This military operation was unique as the first assault launched
in the world’s highest battlefield
...

As a result, both nations claimed the barren heights and the Siachen
Glacier
...

Pakistan launched an all out assault in 1987 and again in 1989 to
capture the ridge and passes held by India
...


2
...

The Kargil conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only
one year prior to that, both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear
capability
...

Effects of the war
1
...


4
...

2
...

3
...
of infiltrators
...
Proxy war: From then, Pakistan has been avoiding direct
conflicts with India but increased proxy attacks
...
Soon after the conflict, the government of Pakistan was taken over
by the Pakistan Army led by the Army Chief, General Parvez
Musharraf
...
Trade, commerce ties of the countries took a backseat after the
conflict
...
Kashmir issue got a new rejuvenation after the Kargil conflict
...
Fear of nuclear conflict arose between both the countries
...
G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani action
...
China insisted on moving into pre-conflict positions and solve
border disputes amicably
...


2
...


The Delhi Declaration, issued by Rajiv Gandhi and Mr
...

It was a landmark document, not just in the context of its advocacy of
complete nuclear disarmament but it also made history through the
Soviet ideological acceptance for the first time of the concept of nonviolence
...
In the nuclear world, it is essential to rebuild
interstate relations in such a manner that confrontation gives way to

4
...

However, gradually people across the world started realising that the
document was a quantum jump towards the philosophy of not merely
co-existence but global existence
...


Peace treaty with Soviet
1
...


3
...


5
...


This treaty played a very significant role in safeguarding India’s
sovereignty and territorial integrity
...
There was a growing
China-USA-Pakistan axis
...

In this backdrop, India and USSR moved closer to ink the historic IndoSoviet treaty of peace to neutralise the effect of the emerging axis and
defend their vital geopolitical interests
...

It also improved our relationship with Soviet which played a great role
in solving energy crisis of India to an extent
...


Emergency
1
...

3
...
Thus one lesson of emergency is that it is extremely
difficult to do away with democracy in India
...

The emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil
liberties
...


5
...
This is a response to
the inability of the judiciary to protect civil liberties effectively during
the emergency
...

Many issues that emerged during emergency still remain
...

The actual implementation of the emergency rule took place through
the police and the administration
...
They were turned into political instruments of the ruling
party
...


2
...
Roots of Khalistan movement are found in the various
developments in Punjab region since 1947 independence
...
Partition excesses: The various riots and the excesses suffered by
Sikh community during Partition of India, made them to feel
isolated
...

2
...
On
language, one group was demanding Punjabi other for Hindi
...

3
...
In the late 1970s, a series of clashes
erupted among Sikhs, Nirankaris and Hindus
...

4
...
This contributed towards challenging
central authority and rising prestige of Bhindranwale
...
Economic: Green revolution, migration of labourers, lack of
industrialisation in Punjab has all led to strengthening the

3
...


movement
...
Green Revolution in India began in the 1960s, through the
introduction of high-yield crop varieties and application of
modern agricultural techniques, and led to an increase in food
production in India
...

2
...
At
the same time, it contributed to increased westernisation of
Punjabi society
...
At the same time,
social evils such as alcoholism and drugs consumption also
increased in the wake of green revolution
...
Thus, a fear arose among orthodox sections that Punjabi society,
especially its youth, was losing its touch with religious values
...
The movements aim was to rid Punjabi
society of the evils brought about by increased westernisation and
to instil religious values among the youth
...
In the 1970s, Punjabi society also faced an economic crisis due to
stagnating agricultural yields and increased migration by
labourers from other states, which led to conflict between them
and the poorer sections of Punjabi society
...
Due to its strategic
location on the Pakistan border, the Indian government had
consciously avoided setting up many industries in Punjab
...
These movements now started advocating the idea of an
independent Sikh nation, which could be freed from outside
religious and cultural influences
...
Operation Blue Star was a military operation to remove Sikh
militants who were amassing weapons in the Golden temple
complex in Amritsar
...
The roots of operation Blue Star can be traced from the Khalistan
Movement
...


6
...

3
...

4
...
These terrorists were eliminated through operation blue
star
...
The use of artillery in the congested inner city of Amritsar proved
deadly to many civilian bystanders living near Harmandir Sahib
...

2
...
S
...
Sinha, the GOC of the Indian Army who
was sacked just before the attack, had advised the government
against the operation
...
The timing of operation blue star coincided with a Sikh religious
day
...
So, the casualties inflicted on Sikhs were maximum
...
During the operation, a number of Sikh literature were destroyed
and the temple itself bore the brunt of armed attacks
...

Peace afterwards
1
...
This
agreement, known as the Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the
Punjab Accord, was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab
...
It was agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a
separate commission would be appointed to resolve the border

3
...


5
...

The agreement also provided for compensation to and better
treatment of those affected by the militancy in Punjab and the
withdrawal of the application of AFSPA act in Punjab
...
The cycle of
violence continued nearly for a decade
...

The central government had to impose President’s rule in the State
and the normal electoral and political process was suspended
...


Land reforms
1
...


3
...
e taking away land from
rich and distributing it to poor
...
, land ceilings, tenancy
reforms, computerisation of land records, forest rights act, land
consolidation, etc
...
Private ownership of land did not exist
...
Land was never treated as the property of the
kings
...

2
...

During British rule
1
...
This divided village into
Landlords, Tenants and Labourers
...

2
...
So, land got
fragmented resulting in diseconomies of scale, lower production
...
Farmer had to approach British courts for matters related to

4
...
So, Panchayats
lost their power and prestige
...
Since British demand revenue in cash, farmers resorted to
growing cash crops such as indigo, sugarcane, cotton, etc
...

Post independence land reforms
1
...

2
...

3
...
To transfer the incomes of the few to many so
that the demand for consumer goods would be created
...
Abolition of intermediaries, tenancy reforms to regulate fair rent
and provide security to tenure and ceilings on holdings and
distribution of surplus land among the landlords
...


Bhoodan and Gramdan
1
...


3
...

Mechanism
1
...
At the state level, there were
Pradesh Bhoodan committees in each region
...

2
...
First preference given to
landless agricultural labourers and then to farmers with
insufficient land
...
In the initial years the movement achieved a considerable degree
of success, especially in North India-UP, Bihar by receiving over

4
...


4 million acres of land as donation by 1956
...

2
...

3
...
The landlords were under no
compulsion to donate their land, it was a voluntary movement
...

4
...

Obstacles
1
...
While nearly 4
...
65 million
acres was actually distributed among 200,000 families
...

2
...
As a result, many
underserving villagers also got land
...
Big landlords donated those land which were unfit for cultivation
...
In the later phase, Bhoodan workers got associated with one or
another political parties
...

5
...
Because landless farmer
also needed seeds, fertiliser, irrigation, which were not provided
and land became useless for farmer which again mostly went back
to landlord
...
The average size of land given was 0
...

Limitation of Gramdan
1
...
Ex: Tribal

2
...

But didn’t find cooperation from other villages in the plains or
villages near urban centres
...


2
...


Cooperative farming is pooling of land and practicing joint agriculture
...
Cooperative farming is not a new
concept in India
...

Benefits
1
...

2
...

3
...
Members
would not have been able to do it individually on their small farm
...
Case studies generally point out that with cooperative farming, per
acre production increases
...
Although village panchayat helped implementing cooperative
farming, initial response was lukewarm
...
In big cooperatives, big farmers would setup bogus cooperative
farms by showing agricultural labourers as bogus members
...
These
big farmers were also able to get state subsidies such as fertilisers,
seed, etc
...
Even in genuine cooperative farming societies, the rich farmers
dominated the management positions
...
Some member farmers become lazy, thinking why bother when
we will get the same amount of profit in proportion of the land
owned
...
In some state sponsored cooperatives, Government would allot
land to the landless, SC/ST, displaced persons etc
...


4
...
Leadership of the cooperatives consisted of leading families of the
village which not only owned a great deal of land but also
controlled trade and moneylending
...
These well to do families, were thus able to corner for themselves
scarce agricultural inputs, including credit
...

3
...
So this denied the land less from accessing credit
...

4
...

Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) advanced loans
...


2
...


It was decided to put more resources into those areas which already had
irrigation and those farmers who were already well off
...
Thus the government offered high
yielding variety seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and better irrigation at
highly subsidised prices
...

The rich peasants and the large landholders were the major
beneficiaries of the process
...
For many farmers the cost of machinery was too much and they
simply couldn’t afford it
...

2
...
As well as being
expensive, in some cases where inappropriate schemes were used
salinisation became a problem
...


The large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides required by the
HYVs also led to serious environmental problems as they entered
water supplies
...
In areas where there was an increase in mechanisation, there was
an increase in unemployment with fewer people needed to do the
jobs that were now done using tractors etc
...
Many farmers who had tried to take on the new technologies
became heavily in debt, leading to increase stress and in some
instances suicide
...
The Green revolution created wide regional and interstate
disparities
...

7
...
The
introduction of machinery led to the displacement of the service
caste groups who used to carry out these agriculture related
activities
...

8
...
This made the rich farmers better off and worsened the
condition of the landless and marginal holders
9
...

Second Green revolution
1
...

2
...
This is the
Gandhian approach to equitable sharing of prosperity by involving
the poor in development
...


4
...


2
...


Amul spurred India’s milk revolution which made the country the
world’s largest producer of milk and milk products
...
It started in Gujarat as a response to the exploitation
of marginal milk producers by traders or agents
...

Then a cooperative of milk producers was formed to collect, process
and sell milk
...
A crucial feature is democratic mode of functioning of the
cooperatives, with a conscious effort being made to not over look
the interest of land less and low caste
...
Milk production drastically increased, so the union diversified its
activities
...
It became first brand in the entire world to
manufacture these products on commercial scale
...
Computer technology was utilised by the union to do cost-benefit
analysis of prices of various inputs which go into cattle feed and
provide cattle a optimum mix of nutritious food
...
An efficient artificial insemination service through the village
society workers was introduced so that producers could improve
the quality of stock
...

High quality fodder, seed for producing green fodder were made
available
...
A regular news letter was published in an effort to educate the
peasants about modern development in animal husbandry
...

6
...

Impact
1
...
AMUL is available today in over 40 countries
of the world
...


3
...


5
...

The chief beneficiaries were marginal or landless
...

A by-product of the industry has been indigenous dairy equipment
industry and an impressive body of indigenous expertise that
include animal nutrition, animal health, artificial insemination,
management information systems, dairy engineering food
technology, etc
...
This gave
women their financial autonomy to generate more income outside
their homes
...


Cow protection movement
1
...


For a pastoral and agricultural economy like India, cow protection has
always been important
...
It took a
communal turn when it was used for political mobilisation through
Arya Samaj and cow protection movements
...
Religious reason: The Hindu revivalist movement including cow
protection was a response to the proselytising activities of the
Muslims and Christians
...

2
...
Naturally community mobilization was important and
emotive issues such as cow protection, Hindi Urdu divide etc
were used as tools for community mobilisation
...
Social reason: Various social groups took an active part in

4
...
Zamindars
participated to ensure that their social status remains maintained
...

Thus is becomes apparent that while cow protection in ancient and
medieval times was more for protection of cow itself, from 19th
century onwards the issue gained utilitarian significance
...


2
...


Post independent India was guided by the principles of democratic
socialism
...
Therefore, a bold step of nationalising
banks was taken up to democratise capital
...
Social welfare: It was the need of the hour to direct the funds for
the needy and required sectors like agriculture, MSMEs were in
need of funds for their expansion and further economic
development
...
Private monopolies: Prior to nationalisation many banks were
controlled by private business houses and corporate families
...

3
...
It could be done through expanding banking network
in the un-banked areas
...
Regional imbalance: In a country like India where we have a
urban-rural divide and it was necessary for banks to go in the rural
areas where the banking facilities were not available
...

5
...
It was necessary to develop the banking habit
among such a large population
...
Bank ownership shifted to Government and decision making
powers were democratised
...


economic growth and
2
...
More credit to common masses and
various welfare programme like insurance, health, housing,
sanitation, infrastructure, road, rail etc
...
More loans and credit to vulnerable and weaker section which led
to reducing economic disparities
...
More loans for agriculture under green revolution resulted in
bumper production
...
Various neglected sector like education, health, SME and
manufacturing industries got necessary capital and credit under
PSL
...


Bhopal gas tragedy
1
...

3
...


5
...


License given to company for making of methyl isocyanate (MIC)
based pesticide at their Bhopal facility overridden opposition from
officials in the Ministry of Industrial Development
...

The corporation was licensed and permitted storage and production of
MIC in the midst of populated communities and worker’s repeated
demands for relocation of the factory and implementation of
occupational safety laws were consciously ignored
...

Bail given to Anderson on a amount of mere 25000 rupees and was
provided safe transit to Delhi and then to US by the Government
officials where he died in luxury while victims were in agony, shows
the complicity between Government and Corporate
...
Post-disaster investigations would show the flouting and
circumvention of several regulations by the Indian government,
including the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act and safety norms that
had set the stage for the disaster
...


2
...


4
...


6
...
Major
environmental movements in independent India include Chipko,
Appiko and the Narmada Bachao Andolan
...

Both western and Indian environmentalism have raised issues such as
protection of forests (Chipko/Appiko), compensation for industrial
pollution and disasters (Bhopal Gas Tragedy) and banning of nuclear
energy (Kudankulam)
...

However, the concern for nature is couched in aesthetic terms in the
west
...
In India, the protection of nature is portrayed
as essential to the survival of the communities involved
...

The social base of the environmental movements also varies
...
In India, poor constitute a majority
of the protesters in the various environmental movements
...
These organisations are staffed by paid
volunteers, experts, lawyers and scientists
...

Finally, Indian cultural and religious values, especially the animistic
aspects of Hindu and tribal religions, provide a spiritual basis to Indian
environmentalism which is not found in the materialistic values of

western religions
...




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