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AP Chemistry Study Guide

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Basic math and stoichiometry:
Conversion of Units: Used to convert between different units of measure (e
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,
liters to milliliters, grams to kilograms, etc
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05 L
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For example, a ruler may be marked in millimeters, but the last digit may need to
be more accurate, meaning the deal has only two significant figures
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For example, determining the number of moles of a substance in a given
volume, mass, or concentration
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For example, a balanced chemical equation can determine
the reactant required to produce an effect
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In environmental science, stoichiometry determines the number of pollutants in a
sample and designs treatment processes to remove the contaminants
...

In medicine, stoichiometry is used to calculate the dose of drugs based on the
patient's weight and to determine the amounts of chemicals needed to produce
therapeutic substances
...
Atomic structure and the periodic table
Atomic structure and the periodic table: The study of the arrangement of
electrons in an atom and the properties and recurring trends of elements in the
periodic table, such as atomic number, electron configurations, and reactivity
...
For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, which
means it has one proton in its nucleus
...
For example,
the electron configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2, indicating that it has two
electrons in the 1s orbital, two electrons in the 2s orbital, and two electrons in the
2p orbital
...
For
example, the reactivity of a metal is determined by the ease with which it loses
electrons to form positive ions
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For example, the reactivity of
components can be used to predict the products of a reply
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In medicine, the properties of elements can be used to design drugs that target
specific proteins in the body
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Chemical Bonding:
Covalent Bonding: A chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons
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Ionic Bonding: A chemical bond in which one atom donates electrons to another
bit
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Metallic Bonding: A chemical bond in which metal atoms share electrons to form
a sea of electrons that surrounds positively charged metal ions
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Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Substances:
Dipole-Dipole Forces: A type of intermolecular force that arises between
molecules with a positive and negative end
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Hydrogen Bonding: A type of intermolecular force that arises between a hydrogen
atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine, and an electronegative atom of another molecule
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London Dispersion Forces: The weakest intermolecular forces arise between all
types of molecules due to the fluctuation of the distribution of electrons in an
atom or molecule
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Use cases:
In materials science, the study of chemical bonding and intermolecular forces is
used to design new materials with specific properties, such as high strength, low
weight, or corrosion resistance
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In environmental science, the properties of substances, such as boiling point and
viscosity, can be used to design processes to separate pollutants from the
environment
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Chemical Thermodynamics:
Laws of Thermodynamics: The fundamental principles that govern the
relationships between energy, heat, and work in chemical systems
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The second law states that some point will
inevitably be lost as heat in any energy conversion
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Enthalpy: A measure of the total energy of a system, including both internal
energy and the energy associated with the pressure and volume of the system
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Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system
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Use cases:

In energy production, chemical thermodynamics is used to predict and
understand the efficiency of energy conversion processes, such as combustion
reactions in power plants
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In environmental science, chemical thermodynamics is used to predict the
potential for energy recovery from waste materials and to design processes for
energy recovery from waste
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6
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Chemical Kinetics:
Rate of Reaction: The speed at which a chemical reaction occurs
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Factors affecting reaction rate:

Concentration: The number of reactants present in a solution
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Temperature: The temperature of the reaction mixture
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Catalysts: Substances that increase the reaction rate by lowering the activation
energy for the reaction
...

Half-life: The time required for half of the reactants to be consumed in a reaction
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Acid-base equilibria
Acid-base equilibria: The study of the balance between acids and bases in an
aqueous solution, including the definitions of acids and bases, the pH scale, and
the calculation of acid-base dissociation constants and buffer systems
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Acids have a pH below 7, while bases have a pH above 7
...

Acid-Base Dissociation Constants: A measure of the strength of an acid or base in
an aqueous solution, expressed as a numerical constant
...
Buffer systems are used in many industrial and
biological applications to maintain a constant pH
...

In environmental science, chemical kinetics is used to study the degradation of
pollutants in the environment and to design remediation strategies
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In acid-base equilibria, buffer systems are used in biological systems, such as the
blood, to maintain a constant pH, and industrial processes, such as water
treatment, to control the pH of aqueous solutions
...
Chemical equilibria
Chemical equilibria: The study of the balance between reactants and products in a
chemical reaction, including calculating equilibrium concentrations using the law
of mass action and the effect of changes in temperature, pressure, and attention
on the equilibrium position
...
At equilibrium, the forward reaction's rate equals
the reverse reaction's speed
...
The law of
mass action is used to calculate the equilibrium concentrations of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction
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9
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Solubility Equilibria:
The balance between Solid Solute and Ions in Solution: In a solubility equilibrium,
the balance between a solid solute and its ions in solution is determined by the
rate at which the solute dissolves and the rate at which it precipitates out of
solution
...

Effect of Changes in Temperature, Pressure, and Concentration: Changes in
temperature, pressure, and concentration can alter the solubility of a solid solute,
causing it to dissolve or precipitate out of the solution
...
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry: The study of the relationships between electrical energy and
chemical reactions, including the behavior of electrodes and electrolytes,
electrochemical cells, oxidation-reduction reactions, and galvanic cells and their
applications in batteries and electroplating
...


Electrodes and Electrolytes: Electrodes are conductors through which electrical
current can flow, while electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity in an
aqueous solution
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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: Reactions in which electrons are transferred from
one species to another, resulting in the oxidation of one species and the
reduction of another
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Use Cases:
In the chemical industry, chemical equilibria are used to predict the outcome of
chemical reactions and design processes for chemical production
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In the energy industry, electrochemistry is used to develop batteries and fuel cells
for energy storage and generation
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11
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It includes topics like nomenclature, chemical reactions, and chemical
reactivity (e
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, oxidation-reduction reactions, acid-base reactions, precipitation
reactions)
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Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry studies the structure, reactivity, and synthesis of carbon
compounds
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15
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