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Nursing 101 Exam 1 Study Guide Erik Erikson’s developmental stages:
Erik Erikson expanded on Freud’s theory of developmental stages
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(Ability to self-care)
3)

Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yr): Make decisions
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People seek self-actualization
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Tselvesdeal self is constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations,
and things you admire about role models
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Summary: People shape their perspersonalitiesough free will
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And people continuously seek experiences to
make them better and to become their ideal seselves

pg
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People are born blank
slates, and environmental reinforcements/punishments determine personality
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Five-factor model – Extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness
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Created by Raymond Cattell
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States – Situational and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by the
external environment
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) – Have obsessions and compulsions
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Compulsions are repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in
response to an obsession to get rid of the distress
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Schizophrenia – A chronic incapacitating disorder by which a person is out of
touch with reality
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Positive symptoms of psychosis – Positive means something is added
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Negative symptoms of psychosis – Reduced emotional expression, reduced fluency
of speech, reduced initiative
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Delusions
are false belief that is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false
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Disorganized schizophrenics show negative symptoms, disorganized speech, and
disorganized behavior
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Catatonic schizophrenics show catatonic behavior; disturbances in movement
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pg
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Residual schizophrenics previously met the criteria for schizophrenia but
symptoms are milder
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Mood – A person’s sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life
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Bipolar disorder – Experience cyclic mood episodes at both extremes or “poles”,
depression and mania
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Bipolar I disorder – Must have experienced at least one manic episode or mixed
episode and one major depressive episode to be diagnosed
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Diagnosed by having at
least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode
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Manic episode – For at least one week a person has experienced an abnormal
unrestrained irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms:
Grandiose delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased
talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgment, distractibility with a flight of
ideas or racing thoughts

Mixed episode - A person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and
manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week and the symptoms are severe
enough to cause hospitalization or impaired social or personal function
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Dissociative disorders:

Dissociative disorder – Disruptions in awareness, memory, and identity that are
extreme or frequent enough that they cause distress or impair the person’s
functioning
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Usually caused by severe stress or trauma
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Dissociative identity disorder – A person alternates between two or more distinct
personality identities
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This used to be known
as multiple personality disorder
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Personality disorder:

Personality disorder – An enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviate from
cultural norms, impair functioning, and cause distress either to the person with the
disorder or to those in their life
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Traits include: Irrational, withdrawn,
cold, suspicious

Cluster B – Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic
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Traits include: Tense,
anxiety, over-controlled

Paranoid personality disorder – Mistrusts and misinterprets others’ motives and
actions, without sufficient cause
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Seems unaffected emotionally by
interactions with others, appearing detached or cold
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Such as odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and
perceptions
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Antisocial personality disorder – Has a history of serious behavior problems
beginning as a young teen including significant aggression towards people and
animals, lying or theft, deliberate property destruction, and serious rule violation
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Borderline personality disorder – Enduring or recurrent instability in his/her
impulse control, mood, and image of self and others
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Histrionic personality disorder – Strongly desires to be the center of attention

Narcissistic personality disorder – Feels grandiosely self-important, with fantasies
of beauty, brilliance, and power
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Typically lack empathy for others
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Have
fears of criticism
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Dependent personality disorder – Feels the need to be taken care of by others and
unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself/herself
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Obsessive-Compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) – May not have any true
obsessions or compulsions
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Often have a preoccupation with orderliness and list-making
across a variety of situations that can interfere with effectiveness and efficiency
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pg
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It is
characterized by anterograde amnesia
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Caused by the death of cells
that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra
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As well as the tendency tobehaver according tothose underlying beliefs and
feelings
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The factor tinfluencesence the link between attitude and behavior:

1)
When social influences are reduced
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2)
Attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection
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Behavior influencing attitude:

pg
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Being in a certain role influences one’s attitude
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2)
Public declaration
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The individual may be unaware of the
social pressure that might have influenced the statement and thus the individual
might conclude that the statement was a personal belief
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People often modify their attitudes to justify their
behavior
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Cognitive dissonance theory – Explains that we feel tension whenever we hold two
thoughts or beliefs that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don’t
match
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Self-justification plays an important role in how behaviors shape attitudes
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Self-identity formation:

Self-concept (self-identity) – The sum of an individual’s knowledge and
understanding of themselves
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Is
developed and refined through interaction with others
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pg
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Self-reference effect – The tendency to better remember information relevant and
consistent with our own self-concept
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If one considers themselves smart and gets a good score they will remember it
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Self-efficacy – The belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness
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It has been shown that simply believing in one’s abilities actually improves
performance
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Believe that the responsibility lies on them
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Having an internal locus of control has been shown to empower individuals
while having an external locus of control is involved with depressed and oppressed
people
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Looking-glass self – People develop self-concepts based on how others perceive
them
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(developed by
Charles Cooley)
pg
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Formed the beginning of symbolic interactionism
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It is a lifelong sociological process where people
learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture
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Formal norms – Generally written down, such as laws
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Informal norms – Not written down but are generally understood
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Ex
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Mores – Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are strictly
enforced
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Animal abuse and treason are mores
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Ex
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Generally it is a member of a minority group trying to conform
to the culture of the majority group
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Amalgamation – When majority and minority groups combine to form a new
group
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Insists that there should be no hierarchy among cultures
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Subculture – A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of values and
traditions that differ from that of the larger society
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This
includes our own behavior and the behavior of others
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Three main factors influence
attribution:
1)

Consistency: How consistent the behavior is
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pg
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Self-serving bias – The tendency to attribute our success to internal reasons and
our failure to external reasons
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Optimism bias – The belief that bad things happen to others but not us
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Halo effect – The tendency for an impression in one area to affect our opinion of
another area
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Physical attractiveness stereotype – The tendency to rate attractive individuals
more favorably for personality traits than less attractive people
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Social perception:

Social perception – The understanding of others in our social world
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pg
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Projection bias – When we assume others have the same beliefs we do
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Discrimination – Involves acting a certain way toward a group
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Ex
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Ethnocentrism – The tendency to judge people from another culture by the
standards of one’s own culture
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pg
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This often results in less prejudice and discrimination
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Often share similar norms, values, and expectations

Aggregate – People who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a
common sense of identity

Category – People who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied
together

Primary group – Play an important role in an individual’s life
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Serve expressive functions (meeting emotional needs)
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May interact for specific reasons
for shorter periods of time
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In group – A group that an individual belongs to
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Reference group – A standard measure that people compare themselves to
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Social facilitation (audience effect) – People tend to perform differently when in
the presence of others
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And for hard and difficult tasks, people tend to perform
worse
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This is also known as mob mentality
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This is caused by a diffusion of responsibility, the responsibility to
help does not clearly reside with one person or group
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The average view of a member of the group is intensified by
being in the group
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pg
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This provides an opportunity
to rehearse and validate similar opinions further strengthening that dominant
viewpoint
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Social comparison – Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others
Groupthink – A state of harmony within a group, where everyone is seemingly in a
state of agreement
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Qualities of groupthink:

Group is overly optimistic of its capabilities and has unquestioned belief in
its stances
Group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions while
demonizing those that don’t agree
Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions by filtering out
information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group (known as mind
guarding)
Individuals censor their own opinions to favor consensus, creating an
illusion of unanimity
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Often seen in groups that are in a state of groupthink
pg
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Those
who break norms of a society are considered deviant
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Ex
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People tend to do what others do

Authority and the discomfort of being disobedient has a strong impact on
conformity Three factors about how behavior is influenced by social influences:
1)
Compliance: Compliant behavior is motivated by a desire to seek reward or
to avoid punishment
2)

Identification: Motivation to be like a group or another person
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Often leads to public compliance but not
necessarily private acceptance of those social norms
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Often applies to new
situations, ambiguous situations, or when an authority figure is present
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Status – All socially defined positions within a society
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Ex
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Master status – The one that dominates the others and determines that individual’s
general position in society
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Ex
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Include things such as gender and race
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Includes
things such as doctor, parent, and democrat
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When many
different statuses all compete for a person’s time creating conflict
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A doctor
who is also a father might experience role conflict as being a doctor could take
time away from doing the roles of a father
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Ex
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This is often associated with the establishment of a new role and identity
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Organization – An impersonal group that comes together to pursue particular
activities and meet goals efficiently

Utilitarian organization – Organization in which members get paid for their efforts
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Normative organization – Organization based on moral goals
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Mothers against
drunk driving

Coercive organization – An organization which members do not have a choice in
joining
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Social interaction:

Self-presentation (impression management) – The conscious or unconscious effort
where people attempt to manage their own image by influencing the perceptions of
others
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Similar to the self-serving bias
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Similar to people also being on stage of a theater,
with the ultimate goal of presenting an acceptable self to others
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pg
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Attraction – The ability to evoke interest in another person
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Three components of attraction:

1)
Proximity – People are more inclined to like people who they are exposed to
more often
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As such people who live
nearby each other tend to form social relationships
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Positive personality traits are also judged more attractively
3)
Similarity – Similarity between people impacts attraction
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Mere exposure effect – People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli
Sociology:
Sociology – Focuses on understanding the behavior of groups
Society – A group of people who share a culture

Functionalism – A view that conceptualizes society as a living organism with
many different parts and organs, that each have a distinct purpose
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) serve a function to help society
survive
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pg
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Such as laws, morals,
values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up society
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Social
structures reflect this competition by competing for these resources
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Focuses on the discrepancies between dominant and disadvantaged groups
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Looks at the individual in society
and their interaction with others, and through understanding that can explain social
order
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People construct their own realities
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The major focus of social constructionism is how
individuals and groups participate in the construction of society and social reality
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Everyone
agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value
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Dating and marriage are socially constructed ideas

Social institution – A complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a
relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of
people
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Family, religions, government, educational systems

Manifest function – The intended and obvious function of a social
structure/institution

pg
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Most often occurring due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or
socioeconomic differences
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Categorization by race, education, wealth, and income
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Educational stratification – Separation of students into groups based on academic
performance
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There is no social mobility
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They can
strive to reach a higher class or fall to a lower one
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Social mobility – The ability to move up or down within the social stratification
system
...
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Social reproduction – The structures and activities in place in a society that serve
to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next
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Cultural capital – The education and skills a person has that allow for social
mobility
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Cultural
capital is not transmissible
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Such as food, safe housing, drinking water, reliable healthcare
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All other Psychology/Sociology terms (Important):
This section may repeat a few of the terms from above, but you should make sure
to dedicate all of these terms to memory
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This can result in an over-reporting of
good answers and an under-reporting of bad answers
...
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Selection bias – The bias introduced by the selection of individuals, groups, or data
for analysis in such a way that randomization is not achieved
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Causation bias – The tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship

Projection bias – When we assume other people share the same beliefs we do

False consensus bias – When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do,
even if they don’t
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Emphasis on information that
reinforces first impression
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Homophily – The tendency for people to choose relationships with other people
who have similar attributes
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Kin group – People related by blood or marriage Exogamy – Marrying outside of
one’s community Endogamy- Marrying within a particular group
Matrilineal descent – Preference for maternal relations in a kin group

Motion parallax – Objects farther away appear to move slowly while objects closer
appear to move faster

Social potency trait – The degree to which someone takes on leadership roles in
social situations

Intersectionality – The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race,
gender, and class
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Labeling theory – Labeling people may influence and shape their self-identity and
behavior
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This theory is often associated with the self-fulfilling
prophecy and social constructionism
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Dependency ratio – The portion of dependents in a population
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This includes people who are under the age of 15
or older than 65
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Aging results in decreased interaction or disengagement
between the aging person and to the society he/she belongs
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Life course perspective – A multidisciplinary approach to understanding an
individual’s mental, physical and social health
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Life course theory – Aging is a social, biological, and psychological process that
begins from birth until death
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Social gradient in health – Refers to the fact that inequalities in population health
statuses relate to inequalities in individual social status
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Can lead to
gentrification
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World systems theory – World is composed of units
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Dependency theory – Periphery countries export resources to core countries, and
don’t have means to develop themselves
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Seen as the
new age of human history
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Skeptical perspective – Third world countries aren’t being integrated into the
global economy with same benefits
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Culture lag – The time it takes a culture catch up with technological advancements
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Gatekeeping – The process by which a small number of people or businesses
control what is presented to the media
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Teaching
children to conform to social expectations
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A form of self-fulfilling prophecy
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Sanctions – Rewards and punishments that are in accord with or against norms
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Ex
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Informal norms – Generally understood but do not carry punishments if violated
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Familiarity breeds fondness
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The learning of a skill does not necessarily require the practicing of a skill
(performance)
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Will go along with behavior without questioning why
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Will do this as long as they continue to have respect for that individual
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Vicarious emotions - Feeling the emotions of others as if they are your own

Linguistic relativity (Whorfian hypothesis) – The structure of one’s language
affects its speaker’s world view or cognition
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States that our perception of hearing depends
on where frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
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Context effect – Describes how the context of a stimulus can affect how someone
perceives the stimulus

Moderation – A model where another variable moderates the direction or strength
of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable
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In mediation; Independent
variable mediator variable (the variable which is mediating) dependent
variable

Emile Durkheim- Focuses on functionalism, which is the interdependence of social
parts that contribute to society’s stability and maintaining social order
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George Herbert Mead- Pioneer of symbolic interactionism
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George Herbert’s “Me” – Our social self
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pg
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This experiment focused on
peer pressure and conformity
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These focused on
obedience, where a person yields to an authority figure
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Conducted the famous Pavlov dog
experiments with the bell
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F Skinner – Developed operant conditioning
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Philip Zimbardo – Conducted the famous prison experiments which focused on the
power of role playing on behavior
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Carl Jung – Carl Jung developed the idea of the collective unconscious,
introversion, and extroversion
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Collective unconscious- The part of the unconscious mind that is derived from
ancestral memory and experience and is common to all humankind
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Gestalt psychology: Explain how we perceive things the way we do
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Gestalt principles feature top-down processing
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Gestalt principles: The law of similarity, the law of closure, the law of
continuation, the law of proximity, the law of figure and ground, the law of
Pragnaz

The law of similarity- Items that look similar are grouped together
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A bunch of
squares on top of each other could appear as a line

The law of closure – Our minds fill in missing information to create a complete
image
...


The law of continuity – Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
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The law of figure and ground – The eye differentiates between an object from its
surrounding
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The surrounding is the ground
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The law of Pragnaz – Complex objects are reduced to its simplest terms
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It is the process in which the brain detects specific stimuli
of an image such as lines, edges, movement
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How our brain automatically connects pieces of information together
on its own then we interpret the “whole picture”
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pg
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Actor-observer bias- The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to individual
traits and one’s own behavior to external causes
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The generalized other represents the common
expectations and attitude of society
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Coined by George Herbert mead
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Preconventional stage – Morality is based solely on consequences of
behavior (reward and punishment)
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Children believe what is right and wrong based
off of what authority figures say
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(Young kids
...

Conventional stage – Acceptance of conventional definitions of right and
wrong
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Still listen to authority
figures due to wanting to maintain good relationships and societal order
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Post-conventional stage – Morality is shaped by abstract ideas and values
...
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Gardener’s theory of intelligence – Theorizes that there are a variety of
intelligences that are used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks
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Game theory – Use of mathematical models to come up with strategies for optimal
performance or success in a given situation
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Traditional authority – Authority due to tradition, custom, or accepted practice

Spotlight model - A theory of visual attention
...


Charismatic authority – Authority and power through persuasion

Continuity theory – People try to maintain the same basic life structure throughout
their lives
...

Drive theory – Created by Sigmund Freud
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Based
on the principle that organisms have certain psychological needs that creates a
feeling of tension when the need is not met
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Incentive theory – States that people are motivated by external rewards
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Cognitive theory – People behave based on what they predict will yield the most
desirable outcome
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Removing the current conditioning to a stimuli
and replacing it with a new response
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Counterconditioning is used to get rid of unwanted responses
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Ambivalent attachment – Doesn’t turn to parent for comfort easily and is not easily
comforted
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In gender identity formation, identification

pg
...


Inclusive fitness – A measure of reproductive success
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General adaptation syndrome - The body responds to stressors in three stages: 1)
Alarm, 2) Resistance, 3) Exhaustion
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Activating sympathetic
nervous system
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2)
Resistance – Blood glucose levels remain high
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Body
remains alert
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Leading to potential disease and/or death
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Appraisal view of stress – People make two appraisals that determine their
emotional reaction to an event
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If there is one, a
second appraisal will then be made
...
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Secondary appraisal – Assess personal ability to cope with the threat
...

Signal detection theory – The ability to detect an important stimulus amongst vast
amounts of sensory stimulus increases an organism’s ability to survive
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Back region- A setting where a person feels more relaxed and can act more
spontaneously and free without worry of how others perceive him
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Alone at
home

Conjugal family – A family that is centered around the husband and wife, and not
around blood relationships
...


Nativist theory of language development – Language is an innate biological
instinct, and everyone has the neural cognitive system for learning language
...
Children are motivated to practice language so they can
communicate and socialize with others

pg
...
Often due to damage to Broca’s area
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Often due to damage to Wernicke’s area
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Typically peaks in young adulthood and then declines
...
Typically remains stable throughout life
...


Proprioception – Cognitive awareness of balance and position of the body in space
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Which in turn raises prices and makes
the whole area more expensive and wealthy
...
Behaviors are learned through conditioning
...
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