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Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
Every science has its own unique vocabulary associated with it
...
Careful study of these concepts is essential for a good understanding
of topics in thermodynamics
...
The analysis of thermal systems is achieved through the application of
the governing conservation equations, namely Conservation of Mass, Conservation of
Energy (1st law of thermodynamics), the 2nd law of thermodynamics and the property
relations
...
First law of thermodynamics: one of the most fundamental laws of nature is the
conservation of energy principle
...
Second law of thermodynamics: energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy
...
Some examples include heating and air‐conditioning systems, refrigerators,
water heaters, etc
...
The arbitrary magnitudes
assigned to the dimensions are called units
...
Primary dimensions are: mass, m; length, L; time, t; temperature, T
Secondary dimensions are the ones that can be derived from primary dimensions such as:
velocity (m/s2), pressure (Pa = kg/m
...
There are two unit systems currently available SI (International System) and USCS (United
States Customary System) or English system
...
The SI units are based on decimal relationship between units
...
Table 1: Standard prefixes in SI units
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Bahrami ENSC 388 (F 09) Intro and Basic Concepts
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Important note: in engineering all equations must be dimensionally homogenous
...
It can be used as a sanity
check for your solution
...
72 mW/mm2 by
the manufacturer
...
2
1W
mW 1000mm
W
10
...
The
mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings
...
1: System, surroundings, and boundary
Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings
...
Mathematically, the boundary has
zero thickness, no mass, and no volume
...
But, energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and the
volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed
...
It usually encloses
a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor
...
Important note: some thermodynamics relations that are applicable to closed and open
systems are different
...
Isolated system: A closed system that does not communicate with the surroundings by
any means
...
M
...
mass
CLOSED
SYSTEM
m = const
...
2: Closed system, mass cannot cross the boundaries, but energy can
...
3: Control volume, both mass and energy can cross the boundaries
...
Thus, the total energy
of a system can be assigned a value of zero at some reference point
...
Macroscopic forms of energy: forms of energy that a system posses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energy
...
M
...
Potential energy: is the energy that a system posses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field, PE
PE mgz
kJ
where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the center of gravity
of the system relative to some arbitrary reference plane
...
They
are independent of outside reference frames
...
The total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies:
E U KE PE U
mV 2
mgz
2
kJ
where the contributions of magnetic, electric, nuclear energy are neglected
...
The sum of translational, vibrational, and rotational energies of molecules is the
kinetic energy of molecules, and it is also called the sensible energy
...
Internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called latent heat
...
The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called
chemical or bond energy
...
Energy interactions with a closed system can occur via heat transfer and work
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Bahrami ENSC 388 (F 09) Intro and Basic Concepts
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Fig
...
M
...
In classical thermodynamics, the
substance is assumed to be a continuum, homogenous matter with no microscopic holes
...
Intensive properties: are those that are independent of the size (mass) of a system, such
as temperature, pressure, and density
...
Extensive properties: values that are dependant on size of the system such as mass,
volume, and total energy U
...
Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (except mass
m), and lower case letters are used for intensive properties (except pressure P,
temperature T)
...
g
...
extensive
m
0
...
5m
V
0
...
5V
T
P
T
T
P
P
properties
intensive
properties
Fig
...
State and Equilibrium
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values
...
In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the
system
...
Thermal equilibrium: when the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system
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Bahrami ENSC 388 (F 09) Intro and Basic Concepts
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Mechanical equilibrium: when there is no change in pressure at any point of the
system
...
Phase equilibrium: in a two phase system, when the mass of each phase reaches
an equilibrium level
...
e
...
Processes and Cycles
Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process,
and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called a path
...
6: To specify a process, initial and final states and path must be specified
...
Quasi‐equilibrium process is an idealized process and is not a true
representation of the actual process
...
Moreover, they serve as standards to which actual processes can be compared
...
Note that the process path indicates a
series of equilibrium states, and we are not able to specify the states for a non‐quasi‐
equilibrium process
...
Isothermal: is a process during which the temperature remains constant
Isobaric: is a process during which the pressure remains constant
Isometric: is process during which the specific volume remains constant
...
M
...
1‐7: A four‐process cycle in a P‐V diagram
...
The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties
...
Independent properties: two properties are independent if one property can be varied
while the other one is held constant
...
Pressure
Force
Area
N
Pa
m2
In fluids, gases and liquids, we speak of pressure; in solids this is stress
...
Weight of liquid
Area
mg Ahg
P
A
A
P gh
P
z
h
P(z)
A
Area = A
Fig
...
M
...
gauge pressure = absolute pressure ‐ atmospheric pressure
Pgauge Pabs Patm
Pvac Patm Pabs
P Patm
P Patm
P
Pgauge
Pvac
Pabs
Patm
Absolute
(vacuum) = 0
Fig
...
In thermodynamics calculations, always use absolute pressure
...
Be
aware of what you are reading!
A device that measures pressure using a column of liquid is called a Manometer
...
The manometer measures the gauge pressure
...
10: Basic manometer, P2=P1
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Bahrami ENSC 388 (F 09) Intro and Basic Concepts
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Bourdon Tube is a device that measures pressure using mechanical deformation
...
very accurate and robust
can measure from 10‐6 to 105 atm
can measure Pgauge or Pabs
Barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure
...
11: Burdon gauge
...
04 m2, as shown in Fig
...
The depth of the liquid in the cylinder is 1
...
The local atmospheric pressure is 0
...
8 m/s2
...
Solution: the pressure at the bottom of the cylinder can be found from the summation of
the forces due to atmospheric pressure, piston weight, and the weight of the liquid in the
cylinder
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Bahrami ENSC 388 (F 09) Intro and Basic Concepts
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60kg 9
...
97bar
1558 kg / m 3 9
...
8 m
2
0
...
3918 bars
2
5
2
1kg / m
...
97 bar
mPiston = 60 kg
A = 0
...
8 m
P = ?
Fig
...
Temperature
Temperature is a pointer for the direction of energy transfer as heat
...
13: Heat transfer occurs in the direction of higher‐to‐lower‐temperature
...
The
equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium
...
The 0th law makes a thermometer possible
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In accordance with the 0th law, any system that possesses an equation of state that
relates temperature T to other accurately measurable properties can be used as a
thermometer e
...
an ideal gas obeys the equation of state:
T
PV
mR
Experimentally obtained Temperature Scales: the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, are based
on the melting and boiling points of water
...
Conventional thermometry depends on material properties e
...
mercury expands with
temperature in a repeatable and predictable way
Thermodynamic Temperature Scales (independent of the material), the Kelvin and
Rankine scales, are determined using a constant volume gas thermometer
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