Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

A Level Pe Part 1 - Applied Anatomy And Physiology
Key features of synovial joints
● Ligament: Connects bone to bone and stabilises joints during movement
● Synovial fluid: Reduces friction and nourishes articular cartilage
● Articular cartilage: Absorbs shock and allows friction-free movement
● Joint capsule: Encloses and strengthens the joint secreting synovial fluid
● Bursa: Reduces friction between tendons and bones
Types of joint
● Hinge joint: A cylindrical bone articulates with trough-shaped bone held tightly
by ligaments which limit sideways movement
...
g
...

● Ball and socket joint: A ball-shaped head articulates with a cup-shaped socket
to give a large range of motion in all three planes,
○ e
...
hip and shoulder joints
...
g
...

● Pivot joint: A rounded bone articulates with a ring-shaped bone which restricts
motion to one plane
○ e
...
radio-ulnar joint
...
g
...

Planes of movement
● Sagittal plane: Divides the body into left and right from the medial (midline) to
the lateral (outside)
...

● Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower)
...

● Extension: Increases the angle at the joint
...

● Plantar flexion - Ankle: Increases the joint angle when moving the toes further
away from the tibia - toes down
...

● Adduction: Joint moves the articulating bone closer to the body midline
...


● Horizontal extension: Joint moves the articulating bone away from the
horizontal midline
...

○ For example, the biceps brachii's origin is on the scapula during a
bicep curl
...

○ For example, the biceps brachii's insertion is on the radius during a
bicep curl
...

● Antagonist: A muscle that opposes the agonist providing a resistance for
coordinated movement
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
5, e
...
10 three minute moderate
intensity running intervals with 90 second rests
○ Can be used daily
● Type 2a - fast oxidative glycolytic
○ High intensity exercise over long duration
○ Work:relief ratio should be 1:3+
○ Take 4-10 days to recover (minimum of 48 hours between use)
● Type 2b - fast glycolytic (shot putter)
○ Explosive power
○ Short duration, high intensity
○ Structure: Large muscle size, large glycogen stores, large phosphocreatine
stores
○ Function: FOC high, SOC fast, FAT low resistance
Structure question:
Size + 2
Function question:
FOC - force of contraction

SOC - speed of contraction
FAT - fatigue
Cardiovascular system
● During exercise, an efficient cardiovascular system is important as the heart pumps
blood through the blood vessels to deliver oxygen to the working muscles and gather
waste products e
...
carbon dioxide
● Heart muscle is myogenic as the beat starts in the tissue itself with an electrical
signal in the sinoatrial node (SAN)- mass of cardiac muscle found in the wall of the
right atrium that generates the heartbeat
...
1 seconds to enable the atria to contract before ventricular
systole begins
...

○ coordinated in the cardiac control centre in the medulla oblongata
Hormonal control mechanism
● Adrenaline is released by the sympathetic nerves and cardiac nerves during exercise
in order to stimulate the SAN which increases both speed and force of contraction
increasing cardiac output
● more oxygenated blood being pumped to the working muscles for energy production
Stroke volume
● volume of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in each contraction
...
When this
increases, stroke volume increases
...
This increases ejection fraction- percentage of blood
pumped out of the left ventricle per beat
...

Heart rate
● number of times the heart beats per minute
...

Higher intensity = higher heart rate
...

Cardiac hypertrophy
○ heart becomes stronger due to thickening of the muscular wall
...

bradycardia
○ decrease in resting heart rate to below 60 beats per minute
○ oxygen delivery to the muscles improves as there is less oxygen needed for
contractions of the heart

Cardiac output
● volume of blood pumped out of the heart ventricles per minute
...

● Cardiac output = Stroke volume x Heart rate
...

○ increase with the increase in intensity of exercise until maximum intensity is
reached (plateaus)
○ During exercise, a trained performer will be able to transport more oxygen to
the working muscles as they have a greater maximum cardiac output
...
70ml
● Depends on venous return; the greater the return of blood the greater the volume
available to the ventricles for ejecting
● Depends on ventricular elasticity and contractility; greater the stretch, greater the
force of contraction
Blood vessels
● Veins
○ transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart (with the exception of the
pulmonary vein)
■ Have thin, muscle/elastic tissue layers
■ Valves to prevent backflow of blood
■ Lumen is large to ensure the low pressure of blood is transported
efficiently
● Arteries
○ transport oxygenated blood around the body (with the exception of the
pulmonary artery)
■ Have thick, elastic walls and thick layers of muscle
■ Small lumen to ensure high blood pressure is maintained as it travels
around the body

●

Capillaries
○ slows down blood flow and allows the exchange of nutrients with the tissus to
take place by diffusion
■ one cell thick to allow one red blood cell through at one time

Blood pressure
● force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel wall
● Blood flow x Resistance
● During exercise, the heart contracts with more force so blood leaves the heart under
higher pressure so the working muscles receive the extra oxygen they require
...
They are:
○ Skeletal muscle pump
■ The contraction and relaxation of muscles during exercise create a
massaging effect on veins, which squeezes and pumps blood back
towards the heart
...

○ Smooth muscle within veins
■ Located within the walls of the veins is a very thin layer of smooth
muscle that squeezes blood back towards the heart
...
Increased pressure
in the abdomen compresses the veins and squeezes blood back to
the heart
...

Vascular shunt mechanism
○ the redistribution of cardiac output
...

○ More blood goes to the skin to cool down
○ Blood flow to brain remains constant to maintain function

Control of blood flow
● Blood pressure and blood flow are controlled by the medulla oblongata
...

● Vasoconstriction
○ narrowing of the blood vessels to reduce blood flow to the capillaries
...

● In exercise, vasodilation in the arterioles supplies the working muscles with more
oxygen
● vasodilation in the arterioles supplying non-essential organs such as the intestines
and liver
...
When they relax, blood
flow increases
...

Gaseous exchange at the alveoli
● alveoli are responsible for the exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood,
and their structure is designed to help gaseous exchange
○ One cell thick = short diffusion pathway
...


Gaseous Exchange at the muscles
● partial pressure of oxygen has to be lower at the tissues than in the blood for
diffusion to occur
● lower partial pressure in the capillary membranes surrounding the muscles than in
the blood
● oxygen to diffuse from the blood into the muscles until equilibrium is reached
● the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is lower than in the tissues so
diffusion occurs and the carbon dioxide moves into the blood to be transported into
the lungs
...
5 litres (500 ml)
● Depends on size of lungs, thoracic cavity, age, gender, fitness
● 350ml reach alveoli for gas exchange
● 150ml stays in lungs
● Tidal volume x frequency = minute ventilation
Respiratory centre
● increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood stimulates the respiratory
centre to increase respiratory rate
...

● The respiratory centre
○ responds to changes in blood chemistry
○ During exercise, blood acidity increases due to an increase of carbon dioxide
and lactic acid production
○ changes detected by the chemoreceptors = impulses to the inspiratory centre
to = increase ventilation = the blood acidity returned to normal
...
g
...

● Too much energy containing foods cause you to become overweight, potentially
leading to obesity
Recommended daily allowances are:
● Carbs 50-65%
● Fats 20-30%
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

Proteins 10-20%
Carbs = our main source of energy
Fats source of energy and important in relation to fat soluble vitamins
Proteins = Essential to growth and repair of muscle
Vitamins = Water and fat soluble vitamins play important roles in many chemical
processes, e
...
Vitamin A - maintenance of skin
Minerals = Inorganic elements occurring in the body and which are critical to its normal
functions, e
...
calcium - needed for bone and tooth formation
Water = Essential to normal body functions, 60% of the human body is water - used as a
medium for carrying other nutrients, e
...
glucose in the blood and its use to control body
temperature
Fibre = Essential to health of the digestive system

Intermittent hypoxic training
● Athlete lives by sea but trains under hypoxic conditions
● Pros
○ Increased rate of adaptations
○ Increased RBCs and haemoglobin volume
○ Increased o2 carrying capacity
○ Increased mitochondrial density
● Cons
○ Benefits lost when training stops
○ Lose motivation
○ Hard to reach normal work
○ Risk of inf3ction

○

Dehydration risks

Rcc - Respiratory control centre
● At rest:
○ Receives information from sensory nerves and sends direct messages
through motor nerves to change respiratory muscle contraction
● Inspiratory centre:
○ sends impulses to respiratory muscles
○ when stimulated muscles contract which increase volume of
thoracic cavity and lead to inspiration
○ When stimulation stops muscles relax which decrease in
thoracic cavity and lead to expiration
...


Adenosine Triphosphate
● Eaten food stored as amino acids, triglycerides and glycogen
● ATP - useable energy
● Readily available in small amounts
● Runs out after 2 seconds do of movement
●

ATP = ADP + Pi
○ ATPase breaks ATP to ADP
○ Energy released

Alactic energy system

●
●
●

Phosphocreatine broken by creatine kinase
Creatine and phosphate released
Energy released

●
●
●

Energy used to combine phosphate with ADP
1 ATP re-built
Only enough Phosphocreatine to last 10 seconds
● Advantages:
○ ATP re-built quickly
○ no oxygen required
○ recovery times are quick
○ no fatiguing by-products
○ provides energy for high intensity activity
● Disadvantages
○ Runs out quickly (10 secs)
○ only one molecule of ATP produced per molecule of CP

Coupled reaction
●
●

Products of one reaction used in another
Eg
...

○ Can work aerobically & anaerobically
Disadvantages:
○ Not as quick as the alactic system
...
If not, the LA system will break down glucose anaerobically to
resynthesise ATP
...

● FUEL AVAILABILITY
○ PC: limited for high intensity
...
Fats: 20-45mins, efficient fuel, 15% more O2
...

● FITNESS LEVEL
○ The more aerobically fit the performer, the more efficient their respiratory and
cardiovascular systems are to take in, transport and use O2 to break down glycogen
and FFAs to resynthesise ATP
...

● INTENSITY AND DURATION OF EXERCISE
○ When the exercise intensity is anaerobic (high intensity, short duration) the ATP/PC
and LA systems are predominant
...


Injury prevention and the rehabilitation of injury
● Acute and chronic injuries
○ Acute injury - a sudden injury associated with a traumatic event
...

○ E
...

● Chronic injury - slowly developed injury associated with overuse
...
Commonly caused by a sudden increase
in the intensity, frequency or duration of exercise
...

○ E
...

● Acute hard tissue injury - damage to the bone, joint or cartilage
...
g fractures and dislocations
● Fracture
○ A partial or complete break of a bone as a result of an excessive force that
overcomes the bone’s potential to flex
...

○ Compound Fracture - a fracture that breaks through the skin, open
...

● Type of fracture
○ Greenstick - A splitting partial break in bone as a result of a bending action
○ Transverse - A split across the length of the bone
○ Oblique - diagonal
...
Shattering of the
bone
...

○ Avulsion - A bone fragment detached at the site of connective tissue
attachment
...

● Acute soft tissue injury - damage to the skin, muscle tendon or ligament
...
g tears, strains and sprains
...
g a bruise
...

■ e
...

● Strain - overstretch or tear to muscle fibres or tendon that connects muscle to bone

○

●

●
●

●
●

E
...

Abrasion - superficial damage to the skin caused by a scraping action against a
surface
...
g chafing during a marathon, slipping and falling on a netball court
...

Concussion - A traumatic brain injury resulting in a disturbance of brain function
...

○ Remove - The player from the pitch
○ Refer - To a health professional
○ Rest - From exercise (for at least 3 weeks)
○ Recover -Fully from the concussion
○ Return - To play following guidance
○ Symptoms of a concussion can include:
■ Loss of consciousness
■ Loss of balance
■ Headache
■ Dizziness
■ Visual problems
■ Nausea or vomiting
■ Fatigue
■ Chronic injuries
Chronic hard tissue injury
○ eg stress fracture - a tiny crack in the surface of the bone caused by overuse
...

○ Shin splints - inflammation of muscles and stress on tendons of the surface of
tibia
...

○ Achilles tendinosis - pain in the ankle of distance runners
○ Tennis elbow - the tendon pain in the forearm due to chronic overuse and
repetitive strain
...

■ Nutrition - protein for growth and repair of muscle fibres, cells and
tissues
...
Fats for protection
...
In football,
shin pads
...
Boxers wear gloves etc
...


■
●

●

The importance of a warm up and cool down in preventing injury

Warm up - raises the core body temperature which increases force of contraction,
increases the elasticity of the muscle fibres, ligaments and tendons, which reduces
the risk of injury
...
Gets rid of lactic acid and
prevents blood pooling
...


Responding to injuries
● PRICE
○ Most minor soft tissue injuries can be treated using PRICE
...
Using crutches if an injured
leg
...

■ Ice - Reduces swelling and bruising
...

■ Compress - Helps limit swelling
...
By elevating the injured body
part above the level of the heart, gravity can assist moving fluid away
from the injured area
...

■ Stop - Stop the game and observe the injury
■ Ask - Ask questions, how did it happen? Where does it hurt? Can you
move it?
■ Look - Check for swelling, bruising and discolouration
...

■ Active Movement - Ask the athlete to actively move the injured part
■ Passive movement - Move the injured body part
...


Stages of rehabilitation
● Rehabilitation - The process of restoring full function after an injury has occurred
...

○ Mid phase: progressive loading of connective tissues and bones - develop
strength
...

● 4 stages of stretching
○ Acute
○ Mid
○ Late
○ Long
● Six types of stretching
○ Active

○
○
○
○
○
●

●

●
●
●
●
●

Passive
Isometric
Dynamic
PNF
Ballistic

Cold therapy - Reduce tissue temperature and in turn metabolic rate and speed of
nerve impulses
...
(1-3 hours post injury for 20 minutes)
...
Vasodilation of blood
vessels increases blood flow to the injury and promotes healing (48 hours post injury
for 20 minutes)
...

Surgery - in severe cases, surgery can be used to repair damaged soft tissue, realign
bones and reposition joints
...
g Ibuprofen and Aspirin
...

Massage - a physical therapy used for injury prevention and soft tissue treatment
...

● Dislocation
○ Medical attention
○ PRICE
○ Anti inflammatory medication
○ May require surgery
○ Physiotherapy
● Sprain
○ Torn cartilage
■ Medical attention
■ PRICE
■ Support - knee brace
■ Anti inflammatory and pain medication
■ Physiotherapy

●

■ Hydrotherapy
■ Arthroscopy surgery - repair damage within a joint
...
off-season- conditioning, aerobic training, pre-season- sport specific
drills
● Competitive phase: "competition season", maintain fitness levels, avoid injury, focus
on strategies and tactics, tapering occurs to avoid injury, intensity stays the same but
volume decreases
● Transition phase: "transition season", rest and recuperation season, low intensity
activities occur, receive treatment for injuries

Biomechanics
●

●

Linear Motion:
○ Movement of a body in a straight or curved line, where all parts move the
same distance, in the same direction over the same time
...
g
...
g
...
Eg
...
It refers to the angular displacement that is covered in a
certain time
...
Moment of inertia (MOI) is
the resistance of a body to angular motion
...
Mass of object - greater mass = greater MOI (low mass is
easier to rotate)
● 2
...
Ice skater tucks and stretched
○ Newton’s laws of angular motion:
■ Newton’s first law = a body will continue in its state of angular
momentum unless an external force is exerted upon it
● A skater will spin until they land (the ground exerts a force)
■ Newton’s second law = the rate in change of angular momentum of a
body is proportional to the force causing it and the change that takes
place in that direction
● Leaning forward from a diving board will create more angular
momentum

■

Newton’s third law = when a force is applied by one body to another,
the second body will exert an equal and opposite force on the other
body
● In a dive, when changing position from a tight tuck to a layout
position

Fluid mechanics
●

The study of forces acting on the body travelling through the air or water
○ Air Resistance: The force that opposes the direction of motion of a body
through the air
■ Acts on a body travelling at high velocity through the air
■ E
...
Cyclists, sprinters, skier, discus thrower
○ Drag: The force that opposes the direction of motion of a body through the
water
■ Acts on a body travelling through the water
■ E
...
Swimmer
● Air resistance and drag work in the opposite direction to the way the body is
travelling, therefore their effects must be minimised to perfect performance
and technique

●

Main Factors that Affect Air Resistance and Drag on the Body:
● Velocity - greater the velocity = greater air resistance or drag
...

● Streamlining and Shape: more streamlined or aerodynamic = lower the air
resistance or drag
...
g
...


(Streamlining: The creation of smooth airflow around an aerodynamic object
Airfoil: A streamlined shape with a curved upper surface and flat lower surface design to give
an additional lift force to a body)
●

Developments in Track Cycling in Reducing Air Resistance:
● Light weight carbon fibre bikes with aerodynamic features - reduce energy
expenditure & minimise air resistance
● Aerodynamic riding positions - shoulders forward, high seat position to tilt the
body forwards and narrow handlebars to bring hands and elbows in
● Aerodynamic helmets - glossy surface and specialised shape to streamline
airflow
● Tight-fitting lycra skin suits and smooth socks to pull over shoes - Moulds to
skin maximise a smooth surface

Projectile Motion
●

Speed of release

○

●

●

Due to Newton's second law of acceleration, the greater the force applied to
the projectile, the greater the change in momentum and therefore
acceleration of the projectile into the air
○ Greater the speed = greater the distance
Angle of release
○ The horizontal distance a projectile travels is also affected by the angle of
release
...
G
...
G
...
G
...
G
...


The Bernoulli Principle
●
●

additional lift on a projectile in flight because the higher the velocity of air flow, the
lower the surrounding air pressure
Lift force created by a pressure gradient forming on opposing surfaces of an aerofoil
moving through a fluid

●
●
●

●

●

lift increases the time that the projectile hangs in the air, extending the flight path and
horizontal distance covered
As the aerofoil moves through the air it is forced to part and flow at different velocities
above and below the projectile to meet at the same time behind
...
racecars

Spin and the Magnus force
●
●
●

●

●

created from a pressure gradient on opposing surfaces of a spinning body moving
through the air
creation of an additional Magnus force on a spinning projectile which deviates from
the flight path
There are four types of spin:
○ Topspin - eccentric force applied above centre of mass (spins downwards
around the transverse axis)
○ Backspin - eccentric force applied below the centre of mass (spins upwards
around the transverse axis)
○ Sidespin hook - eccentric force applied right of the centre of mass (spins left
around the longitudinal axis
○ Sidespin slice - eccentric force applied to left of the centre of mass (spins
right around the longitudinal axis)
The Magnus force causes the projectile to deviate from its flight path, causing a
non-parabolic flight path:
○ A topspin rotation creates a downward Magnus force, shortening the flight
path
○ A backspin rotation creates an upward Magnus force, lengthening the flight
path
○ A sidespin rotation creates a Magnus force to the right (slice) and left (hook),
swerving the projectile right (slice) and left (hook)
For the ball with topspin, the additional Magnus force is created by:
○ The upper surface of the projectile rotating towards the oncoming air flow
(top-to-bottom), which opposes motion, decreasing the velocity of air flow- a
high pressure zone is created
○ The lower surface of the projectile rotating in the same direction as the
air-flow, which increases the velocity of air flow and creates a zone of low
pressure

○

●

A pressure gradient forming and an additional Magnus force being created
downwards (all gases move from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure)
The downwards Magnus force adds to the weight of the projectile and the effect of
gravity is increased

---