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Title: Secondary School Biology Notes
Description: I made these notes in my final year of high school for biology. I found they really helped with my understanding of the course content. Diagrams for different concepts are included and colour co-ordinated titles. These notes helped me achieve a high score in biology in high school and i now study the subject at university also, as they provided me with a good foundation.
Description: I made these notes in my final year of high school for biology. I found they really helped with my understanding of the course content. Diagrams for different concepts are included and colour co-ordinated titles. These notes helped me achieve a high score in biology in high school and i now study the subject at university also, as they provided me with a good foundation.
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SIGNATURES OF LIFE
Chemical bonding –
IONIC BONDS (strong bonds)
• Electrons are gained or lost
• Ions = charged particles
• Conduction of nerve impulses and muscular contractions
COVALENT BONDS (strong bonds)
• Sharing of electrons
• Common for hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen
...
Water is produced
HYDROLYSIS refers to water and a large molecule breaking down into 2 smaller
molecules
...
Organic Molecules –
Carbohydrates -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ glucose -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐polysaccharides
Protein -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐amino acids -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐proteins
Nucleic acid -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐nucleotides-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐nucleic acids
CARBOHYDRATES:
Monomers – used as an energy source (glucose + O2=ATP)
Glucose
Disaccharides – energy store or building blocks for larger molecules
Eg: MALTOSE=GLUCOSE+GLUCOSE
Polysaccharides – many monosaccharides linked together, used as an energy
store
Eg: glycogen in animals, starch in plants
LIPIDS:
Triglycerides –
Glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Located in adipose tissue
Phospholipids –
Water loving phosphate head
Water hating lipid tail
Located in cell membranes
Steroids –
Hormones (water insoluble)
Regulation of bodily functions and carries messages
Eg: testosterone, oestrogen
Cholesterol –
Precursor of steroids and stabilises membranes
PROTEINS:
• Functional unit = amino acids
• Located in cytoplasm and cell membranes
Amino Acid:
• R side chain is different for each amino acid
• Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds
Protein structure poster
DENATURATION refers to when the structure/shape of a protein is
permanently changed when the bonds that hold the shape are broken
...
NUCLEIC ACIDS:
• Smallest unit=nucleotides
• Located in nucleus, chloroplast and mitochondria
• Used to store genetic information and protein synthesis
Structure of Nucleotides –
1
...
Pentose sugar
3
...
Osmosis – the net movement of free water across a partially permeable
membrane from a solution of low solute concentration (high water) to a solution
of high solute concentration (low water)
...
High to low concentration gradient
...
This groove is called an active site
...
Enzyme concentration – if the amount of enzyme increases, the amount of
product made per unit of time increases
2
...
The reaction rate will stop
increasing once all active sites are occupied
3
...
Enzymes can become inactive at low temperatures but will
then become active again at normal temperatures
...
pH – each enzyme acts best at a particular pH (optimal pH)
...
5
...
COMPETITIVE
inhibitors compete with the substrate for an enzymes active site
...
Chemical energy within cells
EXERgonic reactions (catabolic)
• Release energy
• Occur spontaneously
• Oxygen used
• BREAKDOWN
• Eg: cellular respiration – breakdown of ATP
ENDERgonic reactions (anabolic)
• Require energy
• Do not occur spontaneously
• Oxygen given off
• BUILD UP
• Eg: photosynthesis – ATP production
ATP is the immediate source of energy for all cells
PHOTOSYNTHESIS – aim is to convert light energy into chemical energy
• Occurs at the chloroplast in eukaryotes
1
...
•
•
•
24NADPH
6O2
18ATP
Light independent stage –
Occurs in the stroma (matrix of liquid in chloroplast)
Calvin Cycle (series of chemical reactions)
Some water formed
18ATP
24NADPH
6CO2
18ATP + 18Pi
24NADP
C6H1206
6H20
Aerobic Respiration –
• Aim is to convert chemical energy in glucose into chemical energy in ATP
• C6H12O6 + 602 + 36ADP + 36Pi = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
1
...
Kreb’s Cycle
• Occurs in the mitochondria matrix fluid
• CO2 is formed
• 2ATP produced
2 pyruvate
6CO2
8NAD
8NADH
2FAD
2FADH2
2ADP + 2Pi
2ATP
3
Title: Secondary School Biology Notes
Description: I made these notes in my final year of high school for biology. I found they really helped with my understanding of the course content. Diagrams for different concepts are included and colour co-ordinated titles. These notes helped me achieve a high score in biology in high school and i now study the subject at university also, as they provided me with a good foundation.
Description: I made these notes in my final year of high school for biology. I found they really helped with my understanding of the course content. Diagrams for different concepts are included and colour co-ordinated titles. These notes helped me achieve a high score in biology in high school and i now study the subject at university also, as they provided me with a good foundation.