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The Body System Complete Series
Alana Monet-Telfer
Digestive System
What is the Digestive System?
The digestive system is a set of organs; which take part in digesting our food and giving us the
necessary nutrients
...

Organs that create this System
 Mouth
 Oesophagus (Gullet)
 Stomach
 Gall Bladder
 Bile Duct
 Liver
 Pancreas
 Duodenum Ileum (Small Intestine
 Colon (Large Intestine)
 Rectum
Types of Digestion
There are 2 main types of digestion; and these two are called Mechanical and Chemical
...
Mechanical: Involves the mouth, teeth, and oesophagus
...
Chemical: Involves the saliva in the mouth, stomach, stomach acid, small intestine, colon,
pancreas and enzymes
...
Ingestion
Ingestion is a process; where food is entered though the mouth, settles in the buccal cavity,
and chewed up into smaller pieces by the teeth
...

This saliva is secreted by three pairs of glands in the mouth called salivary glands; which have
three separate names, therefore, these three pairs are called parotid, sublingual, and
submandibular salary glands
...
This break down of food
increases the surface area for enzymes to work on, also, the tongue plays a part in breaking
down food; since they are able to taste the food and spread even more digestive juices over the
food
...
Swallowing
When the food has been broken down by the saliva; the swallowing process starts
...
This bolus will then go to
the back of the mouth and go down the oesophagus, therefore, when it starts to go down the
oesophagus; a soft palette in the nasal cavity closes itself, the rings of cartilage in the larynx

pulls itself upwards, the opening of the windpipe (trachea) will lie itself under the back of the
tongue, the epiglottis of the windpipe will partly close; due to the contraction of ring cartilages,
and finally the epiglottis helps the food to go down into the oesophagus
...

Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a process where the oesophagus has layers of muscle; which make sets of
contraction for the bolus of food to go down
...
This process takes about six seconds to
complete, before the food goes into the stomach, which therefore, ends the mechanical digestion
and starts the chemical digestion
...

Breaks
start
and
carbohydrates into simple
sugars
...

Anti-Inflammatory agent
...
Stomach
Once the bolus of food has gone though the 6 second process of Peristalsis, it finally reaches our
stomach
...
These gastric juices are secreted from glands in the lining
of the stomach; also, a diluted solution of hydrochloric acid is also secreted by the glands of the
stomach lining
...
When an individual smells, sees, or tastes food; impulses from the eyes,
nose and mouth are sent up to the brain, therefore, once the brain receives these impulses, it will
send new impulses back down to the stomach, where it tells the stomach to start secreting gastric
juices
...

Stomach Acid: As we eat food, we ingest many different types of bacteria which can cause
illnesses and affect the body, fortunately, most of these bacteria are killed by the stomachs acid
...
However, there’s another question
we may ask on this subject, and that is why hasn’t our stomach been digested by the hydrochloric
acid since this acid is capable of burning and digesting some metals!
The reason our stomachs are not digested by the acid, is because of the body’s marvellous way of
keeping everything safe
...
The mucus provides a physically barrier, so the acid can’t touch the protein
wall itself, while the bicarbonate, which is highly alkaline and is secreted by the stomach cells,
neutralizes the acid
...
The mucus on the
stomach lining also protects the whole stomach from the active pepsinogen
...
The time it takes for the
food to be churned up in there, depends on each individual stomach, therefore, once the food is
creamy; the juice will pass though the pyloric sphincter a little at a time to the small intestine
(Duodenum)
...


3
...
The pancreas lies below the stomach, and it creates the
many different types of enzymes; to break down the different types of food into smaller molecules
...

Breaks down fat to simple
lipids
Breaks down carbohydrates
to simple sugars
...



Adjust the pH for Pancreas Enzymes: What this does is give the pancreas enzymes the
right temperature to thrive in; since a high ph would cause then to denature
...
Small Intestine: Absorption
When the creamy food is broken down into smaller molecules; little hairs which have microvilli,
lacteal, and are on the walls of the small intestine; will start to take up the simple molecules
...
In absorption, the walls of the small intestine are large absorbing
surfaces, with circular folds in its internal surface
...
Once the molecules are in the bloodstream, they
are finally carried away to a network of veins called the Hepatic Portal Vein
...

Liver
The liver lies just underneath the diaphragm of the lungs and overlaps the stomach
...
If the blood is low on sugar,
the liver will take the glycogen, covert it to glucose, and send it back to the bloodstream;
therefore, this makes the glucose level of the blood steady again
...
Bile is also
released to assist digestion of fats
...




Create Plasma Proteins: Most of plasma in the body; such as Fibrinogen in blood
clotting, is made from the liver
...
The poisonous compounds can rather come from
bacteria; which have acted on amino-acids, or from environmental foods such as drugs
...




Store Vitamins: Vitamins A and D are located in the liver
...


5
...

Types of food that are taken into Assimilation
1
...

2
...
These large organic compounds are made
from the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
...

Carbohydrates, which are broken down into glucose, are used for cell respiration,
contraction of muscles and electrical changes in the nerves
...
Proteins: Protein foods such as meat, fish and Soya make up 16% of our body weight and
are all good for the growth and repair of the human body, cells, hair, skin and connective
tissue
...
Proteins will be

used to create plasma in the blood; as well as create cell structures, be fuel for energy, and
the cell membrane
...
Lipids/Fats: Saturated and un-saturated foods such as sweets, oils, junk food, omega 3
and 6, are important for the body’s insulation and protecting the body’s vital organs
...
Another use of lipids, are to create the membranes and structures of
cells; as well as assist in cell metabolism
...
Vitamins: Vitamins are very important for the body because they support the body’s main
functions, for example, vitamin A, B, C and D helps humans to see in dim light, release
energy from food in respiration, keep bones, skin and teen healthy as well as help
absorption of calcium
...

6
...
The reason why cellulose cannot be broken down and digested is because our body has
not created the right type of enzymes that break down cellulose and roughage
...

7
...

Respiratory System
What is the Respiratory System?
The respiratory system; is the system that helps us to breathe
...

What is the Role of the Respiratory System?
The role of the respiratory system is to take oxygen, for cellular respiration; while taking out wastes
such as carbon dioxide
...

Organs that create this System
 Nose/Mouth
 Trachea
 Ring of cartilage
 Ribcage
 Lungs/Ribcage and Diaphragm
 Bronchus
 Bronchioles
 Alveoli’s
System Procedure

1: The air we breathe in first flows through the nose or mouth
...

Characteristics of the Nose and Trachea
The table below shows the characteristics of the nose trachea
...
Their role is to stop the trachea from
collapsing on itself; therefore, it holds the
structure of the trachea
...
Their role is to sweep trapped
dirt and particles away from the trachea and
towards the mouth
...

Epithelium
A lining inside of the trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles which secretes mucus
...

Once they trap the microorganisms, the
mucus with them in it is carried back up the
lungs by the cilia before reaching the top of
the trachea and going down the gullet to be
digested
...
The air will continue to flow
though the bronchi and separate down many smaller airways called the bronchioles
...

How does our Ribcage and Lung work in Ventilation?
In ventilation; there are two movements which the ribcage does to take in oxygen; and breathe out
carbon dioxide
...
These muscles are very important, since their elasticity is what helps take more air in; and
breathe more carbon dioxide out of the body
...
Therefore, what happens in this process; is that the ribs will move upwards and
outwards
...
As the ribcage pulls up, the volume of air inside of the lungs is increased; therefore,
this causes the diaphragm of the lungs to pull down into a flat shape; so that the air can fully enter
the lungs
...


Types of Pleural in the Lung
In our lungs, there are many types of pleural membranes and fluids which keep our lungs and
ribcage safe from damage
...

Pleural Type
Information
Pleural Membrane
A membrane forming a protective envelope
around the lungs
...

Pleural cavity
The space between the membrane and fluid/
3: Change: Alveoli’s
There are over 700,000,000 of these alveoli’s in each lung
...
When
the oxygen hits the alveoli and is diffused to the red blood cells; the oxygen will mix with the
haemoglobin of the red blood cells and forms oxyheamoglobin, therefore, this oxygen will be taken
though the capillaries, to the pulmonary vein, before going to the right atrium of the heart
...
Not all
oxygen is removed from the air, on average; the human will breathe in 21% of air but only will emit
16% of the oxygen back into the atmosphere
...
This is where the individual will breathe out, send the carbon
dioxide all the way the alveoli’s, bronchioles, bronchus, trachea; before finally out of the mouth
...


How does our Ribcage and Lung work in Ventilation?
Exhalation
In the process of exhalation, the opposite happens
...
Since carbon dioxide need to be pushed out from the lungs, the
diaphragm will relax and recoil back into it dome shape
...

Characteristics of the Respiratory System
Characteristic
Large Surface Area

Ventilation
Capillary Network

Summary of the Body Systems
Body System

Information
Since there are a total of 700,000,000
alveoli’s on each lung, the surface area
would come to 60 squared
...

Ventilation of the lungs and ribcage helps
keep the body functioning and living
...

Pumps blood around the body
...

Excretes fluid waste and toxins from our bodies
so we don’t die from internal poisoning
...
This
also helps with cellular respiration
...
Not only can humans do this, but also animals and
plants can do this
...

Cell Respiration
What is Cell Respiration?
Cell respiration is a process, where the circulatory and respiratory systems work together to give
cells their needed chemical energy
...

Types of Cell Respiration
 Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration requires oxygen to give the cells energy
...

 Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration does not require any oxygen to give the
cells energy
...
This normally happens when
the individual is doing high levels of cardio or exercise
...
Therefore, in a way our digestive
system is also a part of the cell respiration process; which gives our cells the needed energy to
carry out the many bodily system functions
...
Therefore, as the food is
broken down by certain enzymes in the body; oxygen; which has been breathed in from the
respiratory lungs oxidises the now broken down food
...
This glucose will be converted into a chemical molecule called Adenosine Trisulphate (ATP), therefore, once the glucose has been converted to ATP; it’s absorbed by the cells,
which gives it energy to carry on its bodily functions
...
When glucose is broken down, three carbon molecules called
pryuvate are made; followed by four ATP molecules, two more ATP molecules and two molecules
called NADH
...


 Kerbs Cycle
In Kerbs cycle; the two NADH molecules are put though a complicated set of reactions to produce
eight more NADH molecules, therefore, meaning there will be sixteen more energy rich electrons
for the cells
...

 Electron Transport Phosphorylation
...

Process in Anaerobic Respiration
Because anaerobic respiration means no oxygen is needed to do it, the only process that takes
place, is the Glycolsis Process
...

Diffusion and Active Transport
What is Diffusion?
Diffusion is a process in respiration, where material, such as oxygen, water, nutrients, waste and
carbon dioxide, move though the cells membrane to get to other types of cells
...
If the concentration of the membrane cells is high; it causes the material in the cell to
diffuse out of it
...

Equation for Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen + Carbon Dioxide + Water (+energy)
Symbol Equation for Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 602
6CO2
6H20 (+energy)
Breathing Rates
Breathing State
Resting
Exercise

Breathing times per minute
16
20-30

How does the Circulatory System help to maintain the Bodies Functions?
The circulatory system helps maintain the body’s functions by carrying the red blood cells all over
the body to gives nutrients, oxygen, as well as taking in carbon dioxide
...

When the circulatory system takes oxygenated blood to the muscles and organs of the body, it’s
helping the cells give nutrition to the muscles and organs to keep them contracting
...

Contraction and Movement of the Muscles
This is all done by our red blood cells providing the muscle cells with oxygen and nutrients the
muscles need
...
However, overworked muscles, which stop oxygen reaching the muscles
to support them; can cause glucose to be converted to lactic acid
...
The cramps disappear by the person resting
...
In anaerobic respiration; the muscles will produce large amounts of
carbon dioxide followed by other wastes and water
...

Circulatory System
What is the Circulatory System?
The circulatory system involves our heart, lungs, arteries, vena cava, aorta, veins, capillaries and
red blood cells
...
Without
any blood; we would be unable to receive oxygen and nutrients, which are carried by our red blood
cells to the muscles; therefore, we would not be alive; due to our blood cells not carrying any
oxygen to support our muscles and heart
...



Lung: Provides red blood cells with oxygen
...




Vena Cava: Main vein to carry deoxygenated blood
...
It also carried blood back from the lungs to
the heart again
...
They also
carry blood back to the heart
...




Blood: Transport medium containing plasma, white blood cells, platelets, red blood cells
and many more
...
The main source where red blood cells are made
are from our stem cells, therefore, the millions of red blood cells made are taken by the blood
vessels, also, the life span of these red blood cells from 100-120 days depending in the individual
themselves
...

Carries oxygen around the body
...

Produce antibodies to destroy all harmful
types of microorganisms
...

Increase our immunity by the process
phagocytoses
...


Types of Circulatory Systems
There are a total of two circulatory systems, therefore, these two are:
 Single Circulatory System: This is where the blood is pumped goes around the body
once; since it leaves the heart, reaches the lungs before finally going to the whole body
...



Double Circulatory System: This is where the blood is pumped around the body twice,
since it first leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, back to the heart, before finally going to the
rest of the body
...
Therefore, to know how the circulatory system
works; we need to understand how the heart beats and sends blood to all the organs in our body,
as well as how blood goes to the lungs; before coming back to the heart
...
Therefore, it’s better to see how our heart pumps blood, by looking at the procedure of the
pulmonary and systemic circuit separately
...

Heart Beat Names
 Systole: When the chambers of the heart is contracting, therefore, closing the bicuspid and
tricuspid valves of the heart, this stops blood flowing into their atriums and ventricles
...


How is our Heart Beat Regulated?
When one places their hand close to the middle of their chest, a heartbeat will be heard
...
The heart
normally beats 70 times per minute; however, this can vary depending on the condition of the
individual and what they are doing, therefore, the answer to this question; is that our heart rate is
regulated by the medulla in our brain
...
Once the medulla receives these nerve impulses, it will

send nerve impulses down to the accelerator nerves; so the heart pumps more blood at a faster
rate around the body
...
This will decrease the heart rate and bringing it back to 70 beats per minute
Systemic and Pulmonary Circuit Procedure
Systemic Circuit Procedure
When our heart is in systole, oxygenated blood, made from our bone marrow, flows though the
pulmonary veins; and enters the left atrium; however, the blood can’t pass in the left ventricle yet;
since the bicuspid valves will be closed
...
Once the heart goes into systole, the bicuspid valves will
open, the pressure will rise; and the blood will flow into the aorta
...

Pulmonary Circuit Procedure
In the pulmonary circuit, when our heart is in systole, deoxygenated blood will flow into the heart
from the vena cava, into the right atrium
...

How do these two System Circuits Connect?
How these two system circuits connect, are to do with what happens to our red blood cells when
they travel all around the body
...

This is what turns of the oxygenated blood into deoxygenated blood
...
Such
differences are
 Wall: The walls of the artery are a lot thicker than the veins; which are a lot thinner
...

 Lining: The Lining of the artery is thinner than that of the vein; which is thicker
...
We notice that in our hearts, the left side of the cardiac muscle is larger
than the right side; therefore, this is due to the left side pumping more blood to the muscles, and
organs, of the body; than the right side; which only needs to pump blood to the lungs and back to
the heart
...

Capillaries
How our body gives oxygen and nutrients, while taking wastes and carbon dioxide, is due to our
capillaries which are all over our bodies
...
Once
our blood becomes deoxygenated, it flows from the organ it’s given nutrients to, though its veins
and back to the superior and inferior vena cava; where it is pumped though to the pulmonary artery,
and sent to the lungs
...

Coronary Arteries
These arteries are what carry the red blood cells to the narrow capillaries to give oxygen and
nutrients
...
These
pathogens carry bacteria that invade and harm the functions of the body
...
The immune system is one the complicated but amazing systems
of the body due to its large memory bank which remembers all the infections it’s ever encountered
and has the ability to create secretion of certain cells in order to kill the infections
...
There
are good types as well as bad types of microorganisms and these five are Fungi, Protoctisits,
Bacteria and Viruses
...
In nature, fungi are also mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs
and bracket fungi which can live anywhere such as in water, fruits and soil
...
For example, if a warm damp medium; such as bread or fruit is left out in the
air, surface, or atmosphere for a few days, the yeast (from the air) will land on the food and
start to absorb all the nutrients from the food
...
This mould is the fungi’s fruiting, or growing body which underneath
have thread like filament spores called hyphae which invade the surface of its food, grow
hyphae braches over its surface, secrete extracellular digestive enzymes, which break the
food down into soluble substances such as sugar and finally absorb the nutrients from the
material or food it lands on
...
There are certain causes of these illnesses, for
example, a person can get athletes food by the over growth of fungi called dermatophytes which
then feed on the surface of the foot to stay alive
...
As for oral or vaginal thrush, the cause of
this illnesses is when the over growth of candida albicans outnumber and take over the friendly
bacteria which are located on the vaginal wall, throat, tongue or the inside of the cheeks
...




Protoctisits: Protoctisits are a mixed group of eukaryote living organisms that can’t be
described as plants, animal or even fungi but are described as multi-cellular with a rigid
cellular wall and make their own food though photosynthesis
...
For example, photoautotroph’s are seaweed protoctisits which
crate oxygen under water as well as others such as Chromistia, Plantae, Oomycota, which
are water moulds, Apicomplexa, brown algae called Pheophyta, and green algae called
Chlorophyta
...
Some protists are the causes and agents of disease for example,
Plasmodium, which are protoctists
...



Bacteria: Bacteria are single cellular living organisms with a cell wall, not made of
cellulose but made from proteins sugars and lipids, they can do all the characteristics of a
living cell
...
These
plasmids are useful in genetic engineering, as well as having a slime wall that protects the
bacteria’s shape and DNA strand, cytoplasm and a chromosome consists of a single strand
of DNA
...


How can Bacteria Harm the Body?
Before we go into how the harmful bacterium affects the body, it’s important to know that there are
good types of bacteria the body has and needs
...
However, harmful bacteria are normally ones that
feed saprotrophically on cells and are described as parasites rather than harmful bacteria
...
Once the process is complete, or if the immune system does not kill them quickly
enough, the parasites will flow into the blood stream and affect other cells of body, until the person
becomes ill and the immune system is triggered
...



Viruses: Viruses are the smallest types of microorganisms, they can have many types of
structures but in their cell structure, they don’t have any nucleus, cytoplasm, cell organelles
or cell membrane
...
Therefore, these microorganisms are not regarded as a
species or a living organism by scientists, since they don’t do the functions a cell would
naturally do
...


How can Viruses Harm the Body?
Although viruses are not considered as living organisms, there is one function a virus can do
which is a characteristic of a cell, but unfortunately, this is the process which causes harm and

affects the body; this characteristic is reproduction
...
Therefore, they do this parasitically by first finding a living cell and
sticking to its membrane
...

The RNA, or DNA, then replicates and orders the living hosts genetic machinery to make more of
the viruses particles, once many particles are created, the particles burst out of the host cell,
thereby killing it before spreading to other parts of the cells and doing the same process again
...
Other illnesses that viruses can cause can be colds, HPV, Poliomyelitis, Measles,
Mumps, Chicken pox, Herpes, Rubella and Influenza as well as causing death and illnesses in
plants, for example, tobacco mosaic viruses that affect tomato plants
...

These possible ways are coughing, sneezing, breathing, physical contact, lack of hygiene and
coming into contact with vectors which can give diseases
...

First Floor of Defence
Physical Barrier:
 Skin: The skin is the first layer of defence and is the largest organ of the whole body
...
The top layer of skin, called the
keratin or epidermis, creates an effective barrier that stop foreign bacteria or viruses getting
in, however, this top layer of skin can easily be damaged or removed, for example,
scraping, bruising and cutting can be the causes
...
These platelets gather together and block the smaller capillaries from the
pathogens, the platelets, followed by the damaged cells, also produce a substance called
fibrinogen that changes into a network of fibres across the wound called fibrin
...



Sweating: The reason why some people have high temperatures, and go though
vasodilatation when they have flu is because the immune system is trying to get rid of the
foreign bacteria in the body
...


Chemical Defences:
 Eyes, Nose and Saliva: These body parts secrete substances of tears, mucus and saliva
...
Tears not only break down bacteria’s cell wall but
also wash out any dirt or germs that have landed on the eye
...
Therefore, this mucus is what
stops airborne pathogens from entering the nose, going down the windpipe, and affecting
the lungs
...
Our stomach lining produces hydrochloric acid which makes a weak
gastric juice; therefore, the role of this acid is to kill many of the bacteria that are on our
food
...
This means our stomach wall has a lining containing epithelial cells that
secrete protective substances of mucus and bicarbonate on top of the first layer of the stomach
wall, which is protein
...

Second Floor of Defence
 Inflammation: Inflammation is the response the bodies’ immune system when the body is
under attack by pathogens
...
Therefore, once the skin tissue is damaged, or
the immune system starts the inflammation response; the process begins
...
This is to activate the inflammatory response, once it has done
this, the chemicals work together to cause vasodilatation, where the capillaries are opened
wide
...
Some of the chemicals even increase the
sensitivity of the damaged area by stimulating the nerve cells; therefore, the damaged area
becomes painful to warn the person that they have been injured
...
There are two
types of these leukocytes called macrophages and neautophills and the role of these two
leukocytes is to neutralize bad bacteria and engulf harmful bacteria
...
The way the body can
become damaged by the disease is that the immune system releases the phagocytes and
instead of attacking the bacteria, they go and attack the body’s own tissues
...
Such autoimmune diseases are Multiple Sclerosis; where the myelin of the spine is attacked,
Rheumatoid Arthritis; where the tissues of the hands or feet are attacked and Crohn’s
Disease; in which the wall of the stomach is attacked
...
There are many different types of
cells, but the cells that that are responsible for engulfing and ingesting harmful bacteria are
white blood cells called phagocytes
...
There are 70% of these phagocytes
in the body that engulf and ingest harmful bacteria
...
Therefore, they won’t stop looking, until they are at the site of the wound, or
when the pathogen is located
...

Once the pseudopodia are created, the phagocyte then goes and attaches to the pathogen
using its variety of surface receptors such as lippolysaccharide, antibody and complement
receptors
...
Therefore, this process is called
optimisation; which increases the process of phagocytoses
...
Therefore, once it’s
inside the phagocyte releases digestive enzymes to break the pathogen down and that’s how
the pathogen is killed
...
This means the immune system is stronger and that it would be
very unlikely for the person to catch and suffer illness again
...

These antibodies attack the antigens of the bacteria or they can attach to the antigen
...
There are two different types of lymphocytes which are T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes
...
T lymphocytes
have specialised antibody receptors which can notice other fragments of pathogens of
infected or cancerous cells that have been created by viruses
...
There are special TH lymphocytes that regulate the immune
system by communicating with other cells, stimulate B lymphocytes (to produce
antibodies,) activate other T lymphocytes and call more phagocytes to come to the
pathogenic area, to kill the pathogens
...



B Lymphocytes: The role of B lymphocytes is to change into memory cells and
remember the pathogen which increases the bodies’ immunity, creates the
antibodies that are able to kill the pathogen, and makes sure that the same virus or
bacteria cannot harm the body again
...
Therefore, the pathogen will
be killed much faster than the first time
...

There are many types of B lymphocytes, for example, there’s a type of B
lymphocyte that will be created for killing cold pathogens while another will be
made for killing flu
...



Phagocye Relitves: Apart from the phagocytes engulfing and ingesting the harmful
bacteria, there are other types of phagocytes that kill the harmful bacteria too
...
Granulocytes
contains chemicals, such as histmaine, which destory pthogens and cause
immflamation, Netrophills which break down pathogens, and Dendritic cells which
stimulate T lymphocytes
...




Healing Porcess: There are four healing processes which take place after the
inflammatory response
...




Collagenation: In this process, the Macrophages work on clearing the damaged area
and make space for the rebirth of new tissue, while fibroblasts, collagen making cells,
start to produce a new collagen matrix which will create a new framework for the skin
...
When the
blood has reached the area, this is able to make the new tissues cells grow
...

Therefore, during this process, the affected area is composing itself of specific cell
tissues, muscle tissue and granulation tissue
...




Remodelling: At the final process, the cells of the new tissue start to combine into
their surroundings by arranging their protein fibres in a way so that the new skin will be
suited to the new forces of stresses that might be imposed upon it
...

Renal System
What is the Renal System?
The renal system, is also known as the uniary system, therefore, the renal system is a part of the
two kinds of excretory systems, which rids bodily wastes and fluids
What is the Role of the Renal System?
The role of the renal system is to send our blood though a filtration process, in order to cleanse the
blood and get out the impurities which are created inside of our bodies
...
Without the renal system, we would not be living, since we would not be able to rid
the toxic fluid wastes; which are created in our blood stream
...




Renal Vein: The newly purified blood will flow into the right kidney and the renal vein,
where it shall be pumped back into the vena cava of the heart, before being pumped to the
lungs in order to support the respiratory system as well as the rest of the body systems
...
Therefore, these kidneys are
the main base from taking in blood from the renal artery, to purify it
...
They made sure that important
nutrients and water is reabsorbed back into the body, while the waste is carried to the
ureter
...




Bladder: This is where the urine is stored before excretion
...




Urethra: This is where the remaining urine is excreted
...
5dm3 of urine every 24 hours, and every litre of it contains 40g
of waste products, the renal system is always working to cleanse our blood and produce the best
purified blood; in order to keep our bodies functions in order
...



1: Blood from the heart is pumped out though the Aorta, before going all around the body
...
When the blood finally reaches the kidneys; it’s passed
though the left side of the kidney; in order to go though the purification process
...
Therefore, inside our kidneys there is the cortex, medulla, nepheron, pyramids,
pelvis and ureter, which purify our blood of toxic fluid wastes; before sending the purified blood
back into the renal vein
...



2: In the blood purification process, the blood travels though segmental arteries, though
the helix, to the cortex, before finally reaching the medulla; which contains small unit
filtering arteries of the renal artery; called kidney tubules or nepheron
...
In the medulla, where the kidney tubules are; the all the
blood, is filtrated by nepheron
...

How is the blood filtered from the Bowman’s capsule to the Bladder?



4: The Bowman’s capsule surrounds a ball like shape of capillaries called the glormeruli
...
A very small blood vessel in the nepheron will
carry blood away from the glormeruli; though efferent arterioles; before and leading it to
capillary networks which are the pertubular capillaries
...




5: In the capillaries, the blood goes though filtration by being separated by three different
types of cell layers
...
This is the main layer which filters filtrate substances made from water, ions,
and small molecules out of the red blood cells
...




6: After the ultrafiltration process, the filtrate substances, that have entered bowman’s
space, is now called the glormeruli filtrate, therefore, this is the starting product of the
production of urine
...


Final Tubule Filtrations
Before the urine flows to the ureter, balder, and gets excreted though the urethra; it goes though
the final filtrations process, in order to reabsorb any important nutrients, as well as regulate the
concentration and condition of the urine
...
In the final
filtration processes, the urine goes though four different types of tubules
...
This means
that 20% of the glormeruli filtrate will be left to flow to the second tubule called the Loop of
Henle
...
To go into more detail, the
way the Loop of Henle is able to do this, is by firstly carrying down the filtrate into the
medulla
...
The top part of the Henle loop then carries the filtrate
upwards from the medulla, which in the process absorbs 99% of the water and ions into the
body and therefore increases the concentration of the urine
...


Collecting Duct
 10: Finally, once the levels of the potassium, sodium and ph are regulated, the filtrate
finally passes to the fourth tubule called the collecting duct
...
The collecting duct is also known as the ureter, therefore, the remaining urine flows
though here, enters the pelvis, bladder, and is finally excreted though the urethra
...
In the process of
selective reabsorption, a process called tubular secretion can also take place, where any
impurities or waste in the blood; can be secreted from the peritubular capillaries, into one of
the four filtration tubules
Other Roles of the Kidneys
Apart from excreting urine to keep the body healthy, the other roles of the kidneys are to:
 Regulate Body Water Content: Our kidneys can also regulate the water content in our
blood
...
If we have too little water,
our kidneys will produce smaller levels of urine
...

Endocrine System
What is the Endocrine System?
The Endocrine system is a coordination system which creates different types of hormones, before
releasing them into the bloodstream of the human body
...
For example, hormones secreted by the endocrine glands control the tempo
of the organs functions by speeding the activity up or slowing them down
...

Endocrine Glands
There are nine endocrine types of endocrine glands in our bodies
...
These three hormone groups are:


Steroids: Steroids are hormones which are made from fats called cholesterol
...

Examples of steroid hormones are
Testosterone, Progesterone, Aldosterone, Estradiol and Androstenedione
...
Examples of these hormones are the
growth hormone, Vasopressin, Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, and Oxytocin
...


Endocrine Glands
Pineal, Hypothalamus, and Pituitary Glands
What is the Pineal Gland?
The pine coned shaped Pineal gland is located in the diencephalon of the brain; which is near the
middle of the whole brain
...
The Pineal gland is known to be the third eye in mysticism
...
Therefore, this hormones
role in the body is to:
 Regulates Sleep and Wake Cycles: This is the reason why humans will be more active in
the summer, and more tired in the winter
...
The reason why humans and animals will feel more tired in winter is
because the hormone Melatonin is secreted mostly during the night because when we
close our eyes, the Pineal gland senses that it’s dark and starts to secrete the hormone
...

Therefore, since in winter the environment is darker, more of the hormone is secreted to
the body; which means that the individual or animal will feel more tired
...



Influences Sexual Development and Reproduction



Convert Nerve signals to Endocrine Signals
...




Regulates Endocrine Functions
...


This is caused by

What is the Hypothalamus/Pituitary Gland?
The Hypothalamus is a pearl shaped gland which is located at the under surface of the brain below
the Thalamus and controls the Pituitary Gland
...
The Pituitary gland is located in the bony hollow of the skull called the Sella Turcica; which is
located at the back of the nose and underneath the brain
...
The table below shows the
different types of hormones secreted by the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland, followed by the
function of the hormone
...

Simulates Adrenal Glands to
release Cortisol; which is a
steroid hormone that causes
the individual to have stress
...

Regulates the amount of
urine which is created by the
kidneys
...

Controls the contraction of
the womb in pregnancy; as
well as induces milk for the
baby after child birth
...

Controls sleep and awake
cycles and the change in
Cortisol
...

Creates the feeling of pain
...
They thyroid is controlled by the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Glands
...
Other roles of these two hormones are to promote natural skeletal
health, regulate body temperature, regulate weight, as well as being important in the development
of the brain
...
Therefore, since Triiodothyroine has four ions of iodine, the thyroid can create the two
hormones needed for the functions
...
Calciitonin, a hormone also secreted
by the thyroid, stops oesteoclasts from happening in the bone marrow
...
When the thyroid
senses something wrong in the body; for example, high levels of calcium, it will secrete a hormone
called Calciitonin
...
This action causes the decrease of calcium in the blood and stimulates the
parathyroid glands to release their hormones
...

 Absorb Calcium from the intestine into the blood
...

 Stimulates kidneys to excrete phosphate in the urine
...

Calcium
Calcium is very important, especially for the nervous system
...
Regulation of calcium in the body is the only role that the parathyroid does
...
It has two
lobes which are made from lymphoid cells
...

What is the Role of the Thymus?
The role of the Thymus is to secrete hormones called Thymuses
...
Also, these
hormones help the body create its own lymphoid system
...
The outer part of the
adrenal glands is the adrenal cortex; while the inner part is the adrenal medulla
...


What are the roles of the Adrenal Glands?
The adrenal glands are mainly responsible for the fight or flight response
...
Therefore, this causes the individual to become scared,
very happy, or angry
...
The table below shows the different hormones
excreted by the adrenal glands; followed by their roles
...

Hormone

Gland its Secreted By

Function of Hormone

Cortisone, Cortisol, and
Corticosterone

Adrenal Cortex

Combats Inflammation, produces
sugar glucose from amino acids,
utilizes
fat,
protein
and
carbohydrates
...


Adrenaline, Epinephrine and
Norepinephine

Adrenal Medulla

Mineralcorticoids

Adrenal Cortex

Glucocorticoids

Adrenal Cortex

Noradrenalin

Adrenal Medulla

Estrogen and Testosterone

Adrenal Glands

Dehydroepiandrosterone
sulfate (DHEA-S)
...

Therefore, this individual will
react to adrenaline and rather
react or escape
...
Effects of
these hormones are increased
heart rate, increase of deep
breathing,
muscle
power
improves and metabolic rate is
increased
...

Creates the effects of stress at a
low pace
...

Increases
blood
pressure,
increases blood flow throughout
the
body,
and
increases
breathing rate
...

Their function is unknown;
however, individuals with high
amounts of this hormone heal
quicker from illnesses, flu and
colds
...


Pancreas
What is the Pancreas?
The pancreas is an endocrine gland, exocrine gland, and digestive gland
...
Although it’s mainly known to secrete digestive enzymes; it also secretes glycogen and
insulin to keep the body’s sugar levels balanced
...
The table
below shows what functions these two hormones have in the body:

Table
Hormone
Insulin
Glycogon

Function
Lowers and balances blood pressure; by
breaking down the Glycogon to glucose
...


Exocrine and Endocrine Glands
What are the Differences?
Exocrine glands are duct glands; which secrete their hormones though ducts to the outside of the
body
...
Examples of Exocrine glands are the tear ducts, mammy glands, salivary glands and
anal glands, while examples of endocrine glands are the Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland,
Ovaries/Testis Glands and Adrenal Glands
...

Ovary/Testis
What is the Ovary/Testis?
The Ovary and Testis are both sexual glands
...
The two testes are shaped like sacs
underneath the penis and it has an outer layer of skin which covers a layer of muscle tissue
...

What is the Role of the Ovary/Testis?
The role of these two sex glands is to secrete sex hormones
...

Hormone
Gland its Secreted By
Function of Hormone
Testosterone
Testis’s
Helps in the growth of the penis, testis,
facial hair, bodily hair, breaking and
depending of the voice, increase of
muscle mass, increase of muscle mass
and height
...

Oestrogen Progesterone, and
Ovaries
Causes the woman to experience the
Estrogen
secondary sexual characteristics
...

Prostaglandins
Ovaries
Aids in the variety of female function
and the sex hormones
...
The reason for this; is because the
nervous system carries thousands of different impulses around our bodies, so we can move, eat,
sleep, and keep ourselves safe from danger
...
Therefore, a stimulus, is something that causes impulses to
travel though our neurons, flow into the spinal cord, flow though synapses; which go up to the brain;
before the brain processes the information; and sends new impulses back down the spine,
synapses, and neurons; to initiate a response in the body
...
The
nervous system events go in this order:
Stimulus, Receptor, Coordination, Effecter and Response
Receptors of the Body
Receptor
Eye
Ear
Tongue
Nose
Muscles
Skin

Type of energy processed to Chemical
energy
Light Energy
Sound Energy and Movement Energy
Chemical Energy
Chemical Energy
Movement and Heat energy
Movement and Heat Energy

Organs that create the Nervous System
 Spinal Cord
 Brain
 Synapses
 Neurones
 Receptors
 Muscles
How Does the Nervous System Work?
Reflex Arc
The central nervous all begins; when the individual becomes in contact with a stimulus
...
When a person touches something sharp, hot, or cold; and
temperature receptors on the fingers will detect this stimulus and generate impulses in the sensory
neurons
...
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are nervous cell which carries the generated impulses from the area the stimulus
was detected; before flowing though junctions to the first part of the central nervous system called
the spine
...
The axons are covered by a sheath made from fatty material called Myelin, therefore,
the Myelin Sheaths role is to insulate the axons which prevent short circuits from happening
...
The sheath is formulated by special membrane
cells; which will embrace themselves around the developing axon
...
These dendron’s lead to smaller branching
junctions called dendrites, therefore, the role of these dendrites is to carry impulses and make
contact with other neurones in the body, for example the motor neurons
...
The role of these nodes is unknown; however, they help prevent the
decay of the nerve pulses, by amplifying them
...




Schwann Cells: These types of cells embrace themselves around the nerve axons of the
neuron
...




Axon Terminals: These terminals are where the impulses, from one neuron, pass to other
neurones in the nervous system
...
Spinal Cord
Once the impulses reach the spinal cord of the central nervous system; they first enter a spinal
nerve called the dorsal root
...
Once the impulses enter the dorsal root; they go though special synapses
to rather reach the brain, or reach the relay neurons; which lead to the motor neurons
...

Structure of Spine
The structure of the spinal cord is divided into two roots called the Dorsal and Ventral roots
...
Both sensory and motor
neurons are contained in both root structures of the spinal cord, also, in the dorsal root, there are
bulges; containing many sensory fibres galled ganglions
...

3
...
They are located in
the spinal cord and brain
...

Therefore, when the impulses reach the synapse; it triggers the fine ends of the nerve cell axons to
salivate a chemical called neurotransmitter
...
After the impulses have
been passed on, the bridge is broken down by specialised enzymes
...
Brain
Once the impulses reach the brain, they are sent to different parts of the brain
...
Axons are
located in the middle of the brain; therefore, this is what makes the spine and brain different
...
In this part of the brain, all of our
thoughts, pictures and memoires are kept; also, the outer layer of the cerebrum is called the
cerebral cortex
...
The role of the cerebrum is
to receive and process information from all organs; before sending them down from the motor

areas of the brain; to the motor neurons
...

5
...
These new impulses will go
though the relay neurones in the spine, before flowing though the motor neurons in the ventral root
of the spine; which finally reaches the muscles and glands
...
In the case of the
individual coming in contact with a sharp, hot, or cold object
...
The process
of the impulses travelling to and from the brain, to the muscles and organs of the body; is called
transduction
...

Interneurons
These neurons are nerve cells, which allow efficient neurons, afferent neurons, motor neurons and
sensory neurons to communicate and send impulses with each others
...

Peripheral System
This system is separated into two different systems called the somatic and automatic systems
...

Somatic Nervous System
Automatic Nervous System
Voluntary actions are actions which we do Involuntary actions are when we do reflex
that are under our control
...
For example, blinking, peristalsis,
consciously, for example, walking, talking, beating of the heart, and the chattering of
touching, eating, and thinking are all actions our teeth when we are cold
...

The somatic muscles and smooth muscles; such as the
nervous system mainly controls the skeletal oesophagus in the throat
...

Nervous System Event Table
Stimulus
Receptor
Receptor
Coordination
Effecter
Response
Bright
Eye
Retina
Spinal Cord
Iris
Iris closes to
light
and Brain
shut out
light
...

Music
and Brain
Lemon
Tongue
Taste
Spinal Cord
Tongue
Likes or
Receptors
and Brain
Dislikes
(Bitter, Sweet,
taste
...
)
Bad Smell
Nose
Olfactory
Spinal Cord
Muscles
Cover nose
Epithelium
and Brain
from bad
smell
...


Skin

Temperature
and Pin
Receptors

Spinal Cord
and Brain

Muscles

Muscle

Stretch
Receptors

Spinal Cord
and Brain

Muscles

walk away
from the bad
smell
...


The
individual
would rather
freeze in fear
or run
...

Hormonal reactions
and healthy
...

Nervous system effects die out a lot quicker
then hormonal reaction, which last much
longer
...


The nervous system sends messages by
impulses, however, the endocrine send
messages by hormones

Both systems depend on the release of a
chemical in order to send messages around
the body
...
With both systems
regulating this, this means that both aim to
maintain the homeostasis of the human
being
...
For example, the hormones
Epinephrine
and
Norepinephrine
are
neurotransmitters and are also secreted by
the adrenal glands
...
Negative feedback
mechanisms that return the body back to an
unharmed state and produce counterresponses
...

As for the endocrine
system, it travels though the blood stream
...


The endocrine system secretes hormones,
while the nervous system sends impulses
through the neurons
...


Reproductive Systems
What are Reproductive Organs?
Reductive organs are the organs which take part in the fertilization and reproduction of another
human or animal species
...


Male and Female Reproductive System
Organs of the Male Reproductive System and their Functions
Organs of the male reproductive system are controlled by the hormone Testosterone
...


1
...

Sperm Production
In the testes, there are sperm producing tubules to which sperm is created
...
In the process of ejaculation, the epidermis
and sperm ducts will contract to squeeze them out
...
Scrotum: These are two special sacs; which lie on the outside of the abdominal cavity;
also, inside of the sacs, they hold the testes, epididymis, and sperm duct
...
3°c, therefore, this is the right temperature for sperm
to be created and secreted
...
Epididymis: This organ is a 6m coiled organ; which lies on the outside of the two testes
...


4
...

5
...
The semen made from this contains
fructose, therefore, this gives sperm the energy to travel through the uterus to the egg at
the womb
...
Prostate Gland: This surrounds the males urethra, as well as where sperm enters before
going to the penis
...
Penis: This is where the male’s urethra is located; as well as where the male urinates, and
ejaculates; during excretion or intercourse
...

Organs of the Female Reproductive System and their Functions
Organs of the female reproductive system are controlled by the hormone Progesterone and
Oestrogen
...

1
...

The ovaries are 3-4cm long and one lies in the lower half of the abdomen at each side of
the uterus
...
In the maturing process, one of the female’s eggs will grow inside the balls of follicle cells
...
Therefore, this hormone causes the uterus to repair itself, thicken itself; as well as the
texture of cervical mucus to change and thicken
...

Once the Oestrogen has done its job; the Hypothalamus will release another hormone called
Luteinizing Hormone releasing Factor (LH-RF), therefore, signalling the Pituitary gland to release
another hormone called Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
...
This
process is called ovulation
...
Oviduct: Narrow tubes that open the uterus and womb
...

3
...
Another
name for this area is the oviducts
...
Cervix: This area is rings of circular muscles, located at the lower end of the uterus where
it joins with the vagina
...
Vagina: A muscular tubule which is the outside part of the cervix and uterus
...

Effects of Puberty on the Sexes
Male
The secretion of Testosterone will cause:
 Testis starts to produce sperm
...

 Voice breaks and becomes deep: This is caused by the boy’s larynx, in puberty, to grow
larger and larger; until it sticks to the apple Adam in the throat
...

 Growth increases
...

 Mood Swings
...

 Hips widen
...

 Voice deepens and matures: This is the same cause as the males voice breaking,
however, the larynx doesn’t grow as large as the males; which is why a woman’s voice
sounds more mature than deep
...

 Menstrual Cycle
...

 Mood Swings
...
Firstly, let’s look into the menstrual Cycle
...
If no fertilisation occurs by the time the egg
ovulates, travels down the fallopian tube, and resides in the womb of the uterus; the placenta, egg,
and corpus luteum; breaks down and flows though the uterus before coming out of the vagina
...
However, once the
period ends; its takes 28days for the reproductive organs, followed by the sex hormones, to
prepare themselves again for fertilization or for the next menstrual cycle
...

How does the Menstrual Cycle Happen?
1
...
Once this hormone has been secreted; it flows to
the Pituitary gland to signal it to secrete the hormones called Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
...
Once these hormones are secreted, and flow into the bloodstream, they start stimulating
the follicles; which makes them start to mature
...
Once the egg has matured; the
follicle cells will start secreting a hormone called Estrogen and Oestrogen
...
Another role of Oestrogen is to stop the secretion of Follicle
Stimulating Hormone, while stimulating the secretion of the Luteinizing Hormone
...
Once the Oestrogen has done its job; the Hypothalamus will release another hormone
called Luteinizing Hormone releasing Factor (LH-RF), therefore, signalling the Pituitary
gland to release another hormone called Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
...
This process is called ovulation and sometimes women and girls
can feel the burst of the follicle, however, this can be rare
...

4
...
The role of the corpus
luteum is to secrete the hormone called Progesterone
...
The hormone Progesterone maintains the lining of the
uterus, develops more blood vessels for the placenta, and also signals the pituitary gland to
stop the secretion of FSH and LH; which end the process of ovulation
...
If the egg is fertilized by a single sperm, the egg will join to the placenta and start to form
the baby
...
This is caused by the breakdown of the corpus luteum
...
During this cycle, the placenta, corpus
luteum and egg will shed and bleed though the uterus before coming out of the vagina
...
This is due to
the high amount of FSH and LH still present in the body; as well as the possibility that the
next egg will be fertilized next time
...

Hormones Estrogen and Oestrogen repair
the uterus and thicken it
...
In the
ovulation process, it also alerts the body to
prepare for pregnancy
...

The hormones Progesterone are released to
do their functions
...
The corpus luteum will
also break
...

Menstrual cycle begins where the placenta,
corpus lutem, blood, and the egg will bleed
out of the vagina though the uterus
...

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
...


Estrogen and Oestrogen

Causes the uterus to repair and thicken
itself
...

Another is that it stops the
secretion of Follicle Stimulating Hormone,
while stimulating the secretion of the
Luteinizing Hormone
...
Another action is
causes, is of one of the mature follicles
bursting; thereby releasing its egg
...


Progesterone

Why do Girls/Women bleed during their Period?
The bleeding in the menstrual cycle is due to the placenta peeling, or shedding, away from the
uterus wall
...
The amount of blood, which is normally lost
during a period, is less that 80mls, however, heavy periods can cause the female individual to lose
more blood than the average loss
...




Anaemia: Due to large amount of zinc; this is lost in the blood
...
In this process, hormones called
prostaglandins are released into the body, therefore, causing the uterus muscles to
contract
...
A inflammatory substance called Lukeotrienes are also released in the body
and can cause menstrual cramps
...


How does Pregnancy Happen?
When an egg is fertilized, it will take a week to travel though the fallopian tube; before attaching
itself to the uterine wall known as the womb
...
This blastocyst
causes more Progesterone hormone to be secreted and sent around the body; therefore, this
creates a thick tissue between the egg and the uterine wall called the placenta
...
Another role of this hormone; is to prevent the decay of the
corpus luteum
...
This hormone, also known as ATCH, acts on the adrenal glands and causes them to
secrete DHEAS; which is called Dehydropiandrosterone sulphate
...
As labour begins; receptors for the hormones Oxytocin are secreted by the
posterior pituitary gland, prostaglandins are synthesized in the uterus and placenta, before
finally the uterine contraction is switched off and the uterus contracts to let labour begin
...
Prolactin: Stimulated by the pituitary hormone
...
Oxytocin: Stimulates milk release
...
Inhibitory Peptide: Inhibits milk production
...

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin hormone
Alerts the body to support the pregnancy
(hCG)
and not abort the baby
...

Stimulates pituitary gland to secrete ATCH
...

Created to be converted onto the hormone
Estrogen
...

Prolactin
Stimulates milk production
...
This hormones is what
triggers labour to begin
...

Inhibitory Peptide
Stops Milk Production
Fertilization: The process of fertilization only takes a day
...
If the eggs have been fertilized, they
will be left for five more days; before the fertilized eggs and taken are transferred back into the
womb
...
Once they enter the uterus, they then travel through the
over duct and travels to the mature egg in the womb
...

The male nucleus of the sperm fuses with the female nucleus of the egg; this is where fertilization
takes place
...
Only about a hundred will reach the egg, and
only one sperm will enter the egg to fertilize it
...

What are Chromosomes?
Chromosomes are organelles of a cell which contain chemical structures called genes
...
In sexual
reproductions, when meiotic cells replicate themselves; each cell will receive a full set of genes;
with the same instruction to create a particular type of baby
...

Hereditary
Alleles
Alleles are genes which control the physical characteristics of a newborn baby
...

 Recessive Allele: Alleles that are Recessive are shown as (b)
...
The mother cat’s egg will have recessive gene for short
hair called (b)
...
This means that the new gene
will be (Bb) and the kitten’s fur will be long
...
For example,
if the dominant gene of the father is green eyes, and the mother recessive gene is for blue
eyes; the dominant gene will take over, making the new born baby have greener colour in its
eyes than blue
...

Genotypes and Phenotypes
Although a brother and sister may have brown eyes, the genes which give them their brown
colour can be the same or completely different
...

Genotype explains how two different people, who are connected by blood and have the same
phenotypes, still have different genes
...

Meiosis and Mitosis
What is Meiosis?
Meiosis is a cell division process; where the cells divide and create gametes; therefore, these
gametes are eggs, ovaries and sperm
...

What is Mitosis?
Mitosis is a cell division process where chromosomes will combine and separate, in this process of
replication, in order to create more cells
...
This
separation creates two daughter cells; with a diploid number of chromosomes
...
This separation will continue with each
cell having the diploid number of chromosomes
...
Interphase: The chromosomes are not
1
...
This is due to the chromosomes
organelles are visible in the cell
...

chromosomes at this point are identical
...
Prophase: The coiled chromosomes,
2
...

each other in the middle of the cell
...
Metaphase: The chromosomes line up
3
...
Centrioles in
division
...

of the cells and create two cells; with the
4
...

4
...
These chromosomes
opposite ends of the cells
...

5
...
Anaphase2:
Second cell division
formed around each set of the two new
takes place which separates the
cells; therefore, this causes the cell to
chromatids into four chromatids
...
Telophase2: Finally, four gametes are
start dividing
...

These gametes will rather
each being identical, and having the
become four separate sperms; or one
diploid number of chromosomes in their
mature egg
...

What is the Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis Cells
 Mitosis Cells: Mitosis cells are known as somatic cells
...
Examples of these
somatic cells are blood cells, epidermal cells, and epithelial cells
...
Even though mitosis cells can covert to meiosis
cells, this still makes the sex cells meiotic and not meiotic
...




Meiosis Cells: Meiosis cells are cells which convert to sex/gamete cells, therefore, they
replicate to create sperm and eggs, which are important for the reproduction of a baby
...
This is why sperm and eggs
only contain 23 chromosomes in its structure
...


Summary of Differences between Meiotic and Meiotic Cells
Mitotic Cells
Meiotic Cells
Replicate somatic cells
...

The diploid number of chromosomes are pass The haploid number the chromosomes are
into the two daughter cells in cell division
passed onto the gamete cells in cell division
...

genes
Mitotic cells only occur in asexual Meiotic cells occur in sexual reproduction and
reproduction, therefore, they are able to will have variation between the child and their
create clones of their parents
...

clones that came from their parents is plants
...

First Stages of Development
 Week 1-25 Days: From week one, fertilization takes place in the womb
...
After 7-10 days, would have grown into 256cells
...
By day 20; the nervous system of the baby would have been created
...
Around week five, the baby will measure 7-9mm from its head to its bottom
...




42 days - Week6: The skeletal system of the baby is created, and brain develops as well,
brain waves of the baby should be detected at this time
...




Week 7- Week 8: At week 7, the baby estimate length is 13-17 mm long and weighs about
a gram
...




Week 9- Week 10: When week 9 of the development arrives, the baby should weight 7
grams, and the iris of the eyes and fingers nails are visible
...

The baby’s brain will also take structure and function with all the other systems of the body
...
Around week 12, the baby will practice breathing; as
well as be producing urine which will go out through the placenta
...
If the egg is fertilized and

implants itself to the uterus; the umbilical cord of the baby will be connected to the placenta
...
Other roles of the placenta; is to
secrete the hormones progesterone and oestrogen, to keep the pregnancy going and healthy;
as well as prepare the mother mammary glands for breast feeding
...
Around week 15, the baby should weight an estimate of 142 grams
...
If the baby is a girl, it will start to form primitive eggs in their
ovaries and the permanent bud, which will grow permanent teeth, are formed behind the
babies soon to be milk teeth
...
The baby will should weight an estimate of 359
grams; as well as develop eyelashes and grow larger
...


Final Stages of Development
 Week 27- Week 28: Movements the baby shall be noticed and it shall weight an estimate
of three pounds in the womb
...
The baby shall put an estimate of 5
pounds on every week, and the final developments and refinements will be made before
labour begins
...


Birth/Labour
Labour begins when the fetus of the babies head faces toward the uterus; with the head above the
cervix
...
The cervix walls will start to widen, and open
slowly; to let the babies head come through the cervix
...
Sometime in the process of labour, the water sacks
will break; and water will seep out through the vagina, therefore, this is the first sign of labour taking
place
...
The baby will be born with
its umbilical cord still attached to the bellybutton, therefore, after the birth; it will be tied and cut
...
After the birth, the
placenta; will break away from the uterus and come out of the vagina as afterbirth
...

Induced Birth
If the baby does not give signs of labour after 38 weeks; doctors will induce the baby to come out
by breaking the membrane of the amniotic sac
...

Sexes of the Baby
The sexes of a baby are determined by the chromosome structure
...


Picture:

(Taken from http://open
...
ac
...
com, 2006-2011, Stomach acid is there for a reason
...
natural-refluxcure
...
html, Sunday 15th January 2012)
(Natural-Reflux-Core
...
natural-reflux-cure
...
html, Sunday 15th January 2012)
www
...
com,2000,2011 and 2012, List of Digestive Enzymes,
http://www
...
com/articles/list-of-digestive-enzymes
...
com, 2000-2011, Vitamins and Minerals,
http://www
...
com/cig/biology/vitamins-minerals
...
net, 2002, Cellular Respiration Overview,
http://staff
...
net/pdecell/cellresp/respintro
...
com, 2012, How does the Cardiovascular system work with the Respiratory
System?, http://www
...
com/article/18606-cardiovascular-system-work-respiratorysystem/, Thursday 29th March 2012)
(wisteme
...
wisteme
...
view?targetAction=viewQuestionTab&id=19338, Thursday
29th March 2012)
Circulatory System
(Answers
...
answers
...
co
...
goodtoknow
...
uk/wellbeing/134635/The-bone-marrow--stem-cells-and-bloodcell-production, Wednesday 28th March 2012)
Renal System
(Yahooanswers
...
yahoo
...
com, 2012, Uniary system, the nepheron,
http://www
...
com/watch?v=aQZaNXNroVY, Wednesday 28th March 2012)
Immune System
(NHS Choices, 2010, Atheletes foot Causes, http://www
...
uk/Conditions/Athletesfoot/Pages/Causes
...
nhs
...
aspx,
http://www
...
uk/Conditions/Thrush/Pages/Causes
...
emedicinehealth
...
htm#Yeast%20Infecti
on%20Skin%20Rash%20Causes, Saturday 14th January 2012)
(History of the Unvierse, 2011, Bacterial Benefits,
http://www
...
com/bactbene
...
com, 2012, Protoctisits, http://www
...
com/cabiota/Protoctista
...
edu, 2012, Protoctista, http://www
...
umass
...
river/protoc
...
sciencelearn
...
nz/Contexts/Fighting-Infection/Science-Ideas-andConcepts/The-body-s-first-line-of-defence, Sunday 15th January 2012)
(Natural-Reflux-Core
...
What is this
reason and how much are we supposed to have?, http://www
...
com/stomach-acid
...
com, 2006-2011, With all this acid, why doesn't the stomach digest
itself?, http://www
...
com/digest-itself
...
niaid
...
gov, 2012, T cells,
http://www
...
nih
...
aspx, Sunday 15th
January 2012)
(http://www
...
nih
...
niaid
...
gov/topics/immuneSystem/immuneCells/Pages/bcells
...
niaid
...
gov, 2012, Phagocytes and their relatives,
http://www
...
nih
...
aspx,
Sunday 15th January 2012)
(Wisegeekcom, 2003-2012, What is Phagocytoses?, http://www
...
com/what-isphagocytosis
...
mcgrawhill
...
html, Sunday
15th January 2012)
(Cleveland Clinic, 2012, Inmmaflation,
http://my
...
org/symptoms/inflammation/hic_inflammation_what_you_need_to_
know
...
sportsinjuryclinic
...
com, 2012, Outline the role of the Loop of Henle,
http://answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20090303171702AADuc3k, Wednesday 28th
March 2012)
(youtube
...
youtube
...
)
(Mackean, 1996, GCSE Biology second edition, 50 Albemarle Street London W1X 4BD, John
Murray)

Endocrine System
(CrystalLinks
...
crystalinks
...
html, Thursday 19th April 2012)
(Answers
...
answers
...
com, 2012, What is the function of the Pineal Gland?,
http://wiki
...
com/Q/What_is_the_function_of_the_pineal_gland&altQ=What_is_the_pi
neal's_function, Thursday 19th April 2012)
(Answers
...
answers
...
com/Biology, 2012, Pineal Gland, http://biology
...
com/od/anatomy/p/pinealgland
...
info, 2011-2013, Pituitary Gland,
http://www
...
info/glands/pituitary_gland
...
clc
...
edu, 1996-2004, Endocrine System,
http://biology
...
uc
...
htm, Thursday 19th April 2012)
(Pituitray
...
uk, 2012, Pituitary Overview, http://www
...
org
...
org
...
macmillan
...
uk/Cancerinformation/Cancertypes/Brain/Typesofbraintumours/Pit
uitarytumours
...
com/Biology, 2012, Hypothalamus,
http://biology
...
com/od/anatomy/p/Hypothalamus
...
info, 2011-2013, Hypothalamus,
http://www
...
info/glands/hypothalamus
...
co
...
ivyrose
...
uk/HumanBody/Endocrine/Adrenal_Glands
...
com, 2012, Adrenal Glands and Hormones,
http://www
...
com/research/adrenal-glands-and-hormones-wap/, Friday 20th April
2012)

(endfatigue
...
endfatigue
...
html, Friday 20th April 2012)
(Paitent
...
uk, 2012, The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands,
http://www
...
co
...
htm, Saturday 21st April
2012)
(Parathyroid
...
parathyroid
...
htm, Saturday 21st April 2012)
(Wisegeek
...
wisegeek
...
htm, Saturday 21st April 2012)
(innerbody
...
innerbody
...
html, Saturday 21st April 2012)
(erikanderson
...
erikanderson
...
shtml,
Saturday 21st April 2012)
(howstuffoworks
...
howstuffworks
...
htm,
Saturday 21st April 2012)
(Maricopa
...
emc
...
edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookendocr
...
bupa
...
uk/individuals/healthinformation/directory/l/low-blood-pressure#textBlock202714, Monday 21st November 2011)
(Yahooanswers
...
answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20100124201353AAJIEr3m,
Saturday 21st April 2012)
(Yahooanswers
...
yahoo
...
org, 2012, Endocrine Glands, http://www
...
org/Endo101/page2
...
com, 2012, Peripheral Nervous system,
http://biology
...
com/od/organsystems/a/aa061804a
...
com, 2012, What’s the difference between involuntary and voluntary
muscles?, http://answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20080306111132AAvoXJn,
Monday 23rd April 2012)
(weisegeek
...
wisegeek
...
htm, Monday 23rd April 2012)
(Answers
...
answers
...
com, 2012, What is the Node of Ranviers Function?,
http://answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20110815125838AAJsi9V, Friday 27th April
2012)
(biology-online
...
biologyonline
...
tripod
...
tripod
...
htm, Friday 27th April 2012)
(Yahooanswers
...
yahoo
...
com, 2012, What are the Similarities and Differences Between the Nervous
System and Hormonal System?,

http://uk
...
yahoo
...
com, 2012, Differences between Nervous and Endocrine System?,
http://answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20070503041800AAQtgfd, Wednesday 25 th
April 2012)
(Answers
...
answers
...
com, 2012, what is Negative Feedback Mechanism,
http://wiki
...
com/Q/What_is_a_negative_feedback_mechanism, Wednesday 25th April
2012)
(blurtit
...
blurtit
...
html, Wednesday 25th April 2012)
Reproductive System
How do Homes Control the Menstrual Cycle and Pregnancy?
(netdocter
...
uk, 1998-2011, Female Hormones,
http://www
...
co
...
htm, Saturday 21st April 2012)
(Yahooanswers
...
answers
...
com/question/index?qid=20090923120414AA0rmFt, Saturday 21st
April 2012)
(netdocter
...
uk, 1998-2011, The Menstrual Cycle,
http://www
...
co
...
htm, Saturday 21st April
2012)
(biotopics
...
uk, 2012, Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle,
http://www
...
co
...
html, Saturday 21st April 2012)
(womenshealthgrow
...
womenshealth
...
cfm,
Saturday 21st April 2012)
(medicinenet
...
medicinenet
...
htm, Thursday 26th April 2012)
(Yahooanswers
...
yahoo
...
tripod
...
)
(Mackean, 1996, GCSE Biology second edition, 50 Albemarle Street London W1X 4BD, John
Murray)



---