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The Nervous System

07/10/15 11:18

I
...
Cerebral Cortex
~ cerebral cortex= layer of gray matter that forms the surface of each
cerebral hemisphere
• impulses are recieved and analyzed
A
...
Parietal Lobe
• Has sensory area where impulses from skin (pain, pressure,
temperature, etc
...
Temoral Lobe
• Has auditory area for hearing
• Has olfactory area for smelling
D
...
Memory
A
...
Long term memory= storage of information that can be recalled at a later
time
IV
...
CT scan= computerized tomography
• Provides multiple x-ray pictures taken from different angles
simultaneously
B
...
PET scan= positron emission tomograohy
• Visualizes brain in action
• Radioactive substance is followed as it moves through the brain
• Regions of the cortex become « hot »
V
...
Reflex Activities
•
•

Rapid, simple, automatic responses involving few neurons
Specific

07/10/15 11:18
Integumentary System
~blood vessels, nerves, sensory organs, skin, and appendages
~covering = integument
~aka cutaneous
Structure
Epidermus
~outermost portion
~ substrata
~ composed of epithelial cells
~ does not contain blood vessels
Dermis “true skin”
~framework of connective tissue
~ contains blood vessels
~ contains nerve endings
~ contains glands
Function
protects against infection
~cells of stratum corneum form a tight interlocking pattern
~cells are constantly being shed
~BURNS:
a
...
(sunburn)
remedy: aloe, tepid water
b
...
third degree: most serious, full thickness of skin, muscles, underlying
tissue
“Rule of Nines”
~% of body’s total skin area damaged by a burn measures the seriousness
of injuries and chances of survival
Protection against dehydration
keratin and sebum
Regulation of body temp
...
Appendages of skin
Sweat Glands (sudoriferous)
coiled
tube like
in dermis and hypodermis
each gland has an excretory tube that extends to surface and opens at pore
Fx
...
Skin discolorations
Jaundice = yellowish coloring due to excessive bilirubin
gallbladder
protects against harmful UV rays of the sun
liver
affects skin and eyes
Cyanosis= bluish coloring due to lack of oxygen
lips, fingers, toes
Flush= reddish coloring due to excessive blood flow
increased temp, stress, excitement
Carotenemia= yellowish/orange coloring due to excessive intake of
vegetables, particularly carrots
takes time but will return to normal once diet does
IV
...
Poison ivy, oak
Atopic dermatitis (eczema)
-intense itching
- skin inflammation
- redness
-blisters
-papules

- crusting of skin
- early in childhood
D
...
melanoma= malignant
- fastest growing in US
- mole/ birthmark
2
...
basal cell carcinoma
- upper face
- papules
4
...

Produce blood cells (in bone marrow)
Structure
206 bones
shapes :
flat (rib, skull)
cube (wrist, ankle)
irregular (vertebrae, face)
long (arms, legs) #
long, narrow shaft (diaphysis)
2 irregular ends of epiphysis
transformation of cartilage into bone begins at the center of shaft
later on, secondary bone forming centers develop across the ends of the
bones
long bones continue to frow in length at these centers through childhood/
late teens
by early 20’s bones stop growing in length
~Ossification = bone formation
in embryo « boes to be » are made of cartilage
durig the 2nd and 3rd stages of embryotic life
Bone marking (projections and Depressions/ Holes)
~projections
head
~rounded, knoblike and separated from the rest of the bone by a slender
region called the neck

Process
~large projection of bone
Crest
~distinct border of a ridge
Spine
~sharp projection from the surface of a bone
~Depressions and Holes
Foramen
holes that allows for a vessel or nerve to pass through or between bones
Sinus
air space
Fossa
depression on a bone surface
Meatus
short channel or passageway
Divisions of the skeleton include Axial and Appendicular
Axial skeleton
~80 bones including head, neck, and torso
Skull is divided into 2 parts
Cranium= rounded chamber enclosing the brain (8 bones)
frontal (forehead)
(2) parietal (top and side walls)
(2) temporal (sides and base)
ethmoid (between eyes)
sphenoid (bat=eye socket)
occipital (back)
Facial Bones (14)
mandible (lower jaw) *only movable bone of skull
(2) maxillae (upper jaw)
(2) zygomatic (cheeks)
(2) nasal (bridge of nose)

(2) lacrimal (inside corner of eye)
vomer (lower part of nasal septum)
(2) palatine (hard palate= back top of mouth)
(2) inferior nasal conchae (under eye)
Fontanels « soft spot »
infant skull
most common= anterior fontanel (between parietal and frontal bones)
does not close until around 18 months
Framework of Trunk
vertebral column
child has 33/34
adult has 26
vertebrae= drum shaped body
disks of cartilage between vertebrae act as shock absorbers and provide
felxion
center of each vertebra has a large hole called foramen
Cervical (7)
neck
first one called the atlas that supports the head
second one called the axis and acts to pivot or turn head side to side
Thoracic (12)
chest
ribs are attached
Lumbar (5)
small of back
larger, heavier
supports weight
Sacrum (5 – child)
fuse to form one sacrum in adults
wedged between hip bones
coccyx- tailbone
4-5 bones in a child that fuse into one as an adult
Thorax
bones form a cone-shaped cage

12 pair of ribs to form bars of cage that enclose and protect the heart, lungs,
and other organs
- true, false, and floating ribs
sternum= breastbone
lower end of sternum called xiphoid process which is landmark for CPR
hyoid bone (in neck)= protects « adam’s apple » and throat

Appendicular Skeleton
~ 126 bones total
~ divided into upper and lower divisions
~on EACH side
Upper Division (shoulder girdle and upper extremity)
Shoulder girdle (2)
Clavicle (collar bone)
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Upper extremity (arm)
Humerus (arm bine)
Ulna (little finger)
runs parallel to radius
Radius (thumb)
runs parallel to ulna
Carpals (8 bones) in 2 rows of 4
(5) metacarpals (palm)
(14) Phalanges (fingers)
-2 for the thumb
- 3 for each finger
- labeled as proximal, middle, and distal
B
...
Pelvic bones
a
...
Smooth
• makes up walls of howllow body organs, blood vessels, and
respiratory passageways
• moves involuntary- produces a wavelike motion called peristalsis
• no striations (visible bands)
B
...
Skeletal
• Creates movement with the bones
• Moves voluntarily because it is under conscious control
• Heavily striated
III
...
Tendon=
IV
...
Prime mover= movement performed by the muscle
B
...
Movements
A
...
Extension= increase in an angle between two joints
C
...
Abduction= taking body part away from midline ; increasing the angle
E
...
Pronation= anatomical position ; lying face down, palms down

G
...
Eversion= turning body part away from midline
I
...
Circumduction= turning in a 360 degree angle
VI
...
Location
B
...
Shape
D
...
Number of heads
F
...
Muscles of Head
A
...
Mastication (chewing)
• Temporalis
• Masseter
• Tongue
o Intinsic
o Extrinsic
VIII
...
Muscles of the Upper Extremitites
A
...
Trapezius
b
...
Anterior Muscles
• Pectoralis major
• Serratus anterior – push
C
...
Forearm/ Hand Muscles
• Biceps brachii
• Triceps brachii
•
•
•
•

Flexor carpi
Extensor carpi
Flexor digitorum
Extensor digitorum

X
...
Diaphram
• Most important muscle for breathing
• Located between thoracic and abdominal cavitites
B
...
Abdominal and Pelvic
A
...
Internal abdominal oblique
C
...
Rectus abdominis
• Linea alba
• Landmark of abdomen
• Extends from the tip of sternum to the pubic joint
• Whitish area/line
XII MUSCLES OF Lower EXTREMITIES

A thigh
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

and leg
Gluteus maximus (fleshy part of the buttocks)
Gluteus medius ( where shots are administered)
Gluteus minus
Iliopsoas (flexes the thigh)
Addustor muscle group (inner thigh)
Sartorius ( crosseslegs ; tailors muscle ongest muscle)
Quadraceps femoris
Hamstring muscles

B
...
Achilles Tendon

The Heart

07/10/15 11:18

The Heart and Circulation~
I
...
Heart = primary mover that propels blood throughout the body
• Muscular pump that drives the blood through the blood vessels
• Slightly bigger than a fist
• Located between lungs and little left
• Strokes (contractions) average 72/minute
A
...
Sides
Right side= pumps blood low in oxygen to the lungs through
pulmonary circuits
• Left side= pumps oxygen-rich blood to remainder of body through
systemic circuit
• Septum= partition that separates sides of the heart
o Upper septum= interatrial spetum
o Lower septum= interventricular septum
C
...
Valves
• Direct flow of blood through the heart
• One way
o Right atrioventricular valve (AV)
! Aka= tricuspid
! 3 cusps (flaps) that open and close
o left atrioventicular valve (AV)
! aka= bicuspid
! 2 cusps
o Pulmonic valve (pulmonary)
o Arortic valve (aorta)

III
...
Active
• Systole= blood is squeezed through the chambers by a contraction
of heart muscle beginning in atria (upper chamber), followed by a
contraction of thick muscle of lower chamber (ventricle)
• Upper reading= 120
B
...
Sounds

« lubb » = lower, low- pitched sound that occurs at the start of
ventricular systole
• « dupp » shorter, sharper sound that occurs at the beginning of
ventricular relaxation
D
...
Variations in Heart Beat
• Bradycardia
o Slow heart rate
o Less than 60 beats per minute
o Normal during sleep
• Tachycardia
o Fast heart rate
o More than 100 beats per minute
o Normal during exercise and/or stress
• Sinus arrhythmia
o Regular variation in heart rate due to a change in the
rate/depth of breathing
o Normal
• Premature beat (extrasystole)
o Beat that comes before the expected normal beat
o Caffeine, nicotine, psychological stress, heart disease
• Murmur
o Abnormal sound
o Usually due to faulty action of a valve
IV
...
Nodes= tissue masses
• Sinoatrial node (SA)= in upper walll of RA

o Initiates the heart beat by generating an action potential at
regualar intervals
o Sets the heart rate of contraction
o Pacemaker
• Atrioventricular node (AV)
• Bundle of His
• Purkinje fibers
B
...
The slower conduction through this node
allows time for the atria to contract and complete the filling of the
ventricles
The excitation wave travels rapidly throughout the ventricular walls
by means of the bundle branches and Purkinje fibers
...


V
...
Endocarditis= inflammation of the lining of the heart
B
...
Pericarditis= disease of pericardial sac
D
...
Rheumatic heart Disease= attack of Rheumatic fever in childhood/youth
can lead to
F
...

artherosclerosis= the space (lumen) inside the vessel may gradually narrow
and harden causing a lack of blood supply to the areas fed by the arteries
called ischemia
G
...
Heart failure= deterioration of heart tissue due to a long duration of
increased blood pressure

VI
...
Stethoscope= instrument used to convey sounds from within a patient’s
body
B
...
Catherization of the heart= placing a long, thin tube through the
artery/vein (depending on the type) and using a fluroscope or a dye to map
the damage
D
...
Abnormalities of heart rhythm
1
...
flutter= rapid but coordinated contraction
• 300 beats/ min
3
...
heart block= interruption of electrical impulses in the conduction system
of the heart
F
...
Age= increased age # increase risk
2
...
Heredity
4
...
smoking
6
...
Weight
8
...
high blood pressure
10
...
The Blood
~viscous (thick) fluid that varies in color from bright scarlet to dark red ;
depending on how much oxygen it’s carrying
A
...
Transportation= oxygen, CO2, nutrients, minerals, vitamins, hormones,
waste
2
...
4
3
...
Blood constituents
1
...
formed elements
• erythrocytes (RBC)
o transport oxygen
o have hemoglobin (protein containing iron)
o plus oxygen = red color
o more oxygen= brighter red
• leukocytes (WBC)
o protect against infection ; destroy pathogens

•

o have granular leukocytes (granulocytes) that have three
types : neutrophils (fight infections) eosinophils, and
basophils
o have agranular (agranulocytes) that are lymphocytes (active
in immunity) and monocytes (largest, phagocytes)
! EX
...
Many may die so then a mixture of
living/dead bacteria together with dead/living
leukocytes form pus
! Abcess= colllection of pus in one localized area
Platelets = smallest of formed elements

o Essential in clotting
C
...

1
...
platelet plug
3
...
Blood Types
A
...
type O= universal donor
C
...
Rh Factor

IX
...
blood banks
B
...
Plasma
D
...
Blood Disorders
A
...
Sickle Cell anemia= inherited
• African Americans
C
...
Respiration
• Process by wich oxygen is obtained from the environment and
delivered to cells
• Carbon dioxide is transported to the outside in a reverse pathway
A
...
Phases of Respiration
A
...
Diffusion
C
...
Altered Breathing
A
...
Tachypnea = excessive rate of breathing (normal in exercise)
C
...
As in sleep
D
...
Orthopnea = difficult breathing that is relieved by sitting in a n upright
position (2 bed pillows or a chair)
F
...
Results of inadequate breathing
A
...
) Hypoxia=lower than normal level of oxygen in tissues
C
...
) Suffocation=cessation of respiration
V
...
) Sinusitis=inflammation of sinuses
• Long infections may cause tumors (polyps) that have a grape-like
appearance
B
...
) Epistaxis=nosebleed
D
...
) Influenza “flu”
F
...
) Tuberculosis (TB)
H
...
) COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)=chronic bronchitis,
Emphysema; usually don’t live past 10 years after diagnosis
J
...
) Lung cancer
• Smokers suffer 10x more than non-smokers
• Bronchogenic carcinoma=common
• Pneumonectomy=surgical removal of a lobe of a lung or to remove the
entire lung

07/10/15 11:18
Digestive System :
•

•

Digestion : the breakdown process of food into particles small
enough to pass through the plasma membrane of the cell
o Absorbtion- the transfer of food into circulation
The digestive system is divided into two groups of organs :
o Digestive tract (muscular tube extending through body)
!
!

Mucuous membrane
Submucosa

!
!
!

Smooth muscle
Serous membrane
Organs:
" Mouth/ oral cavity =
• Functions
o Recieves food – ingestion
o Prepares food for digestion
o Begins the digestion of starch
! Saliva- secretion produced by
salivary glands and secreted
into the mouth
" Pharynx
• The soft palate
o Tissue that forms the back of the roof
of the mouth
o Uvula
! Soft, fleshy, v-shaped mass
o Bolus
! Small portion of food mixed with
saliva
" Esophagus
• Muscular tube about 25cm long
• Food is lubricated by mucus and moved by
perisalsis
" Stomach

•

•

"

"

Expanded j-shape organ that aids in
grinding food and mixing it with digestive
juices
Sphincter
o Muscular ring that permits the
passage of substances in only one
direction
! Chyme
" Semi-liquid mixture of
gastric food and juice that
leaves the stomach to

enter the small intestine
• Disorders of the stomach :
o Nasea
! Unpleasant sensation that may
follow distention or irritation of
the lower esophagus or stomach
o Vomiting
! The expulsion of gastric
contents
o Flatus
! Excessive amounts of air in the
stomach or intestine
! Flatulence
" Farting
Small intestine
• Longest part of the digestive tract
• After death, when relaxed : Full length is
20-26 ft
• Duodenum : first 10 inches
• Jejunum : next 2/5
• Ileum : remaining portion
Large intestine
• Storage and elimination of undigested waste
and reabsorption of water
• Forms solid waste material/ feces

•
•

Apendix
o no one understands its function
defication
o elimination of waste from the body
o aided by voluntary muscles of the
diaphragm and abdominals
o diarrhea
! « bursting forth »
! abnormally frequent, watery
bowl movements
o constipation
!

hard stools or trouble deficating

o excessory glands
!

!

salivary gland
" produces saliva that contains salivary amylase
which starts the process of converting starch to
sugar
liver
" largest glandular organ of the body
" functions
• storage of glucose
• formation of blood plasma proteins
• synthesis of urea
• modification of fats
• manufacture of bile
• destruction of old red blood cells
o by-product= bilirubin
• detoxification of harmful substances
• storage of vitamins and iron
" disorders
• hepatitis
o inflamation of the liver
o A,B,C,D,E,G
• Cirrhosis

•
!

Jaundice

Teeth
" Deciduous
• Baby
• Child between 2-6 have 20

!
"

"

"
"
"

•

Adults have 32
• Incisers
• Molars
• Canine teeth- cuspids
Caries
• Rottenness
• Tooth decay
Gingivitis
• Inflamaton of the gums
Periodontitis
• Infection of the gums and supporting bone
Vincent’s disease
• Form of gingivitis
• Ulcers, inflamation, infected mucous
membranes

Peritoneum
o Parietal
! Lines the cavity
o Visceral
! Covers the organs
o Mesentery
! Double layer portopn of the paritonium
! Shaped like a fan
...

_____________________________________________________________
Excretory System :
I
...
0 (4
...
5 inches long
" Only drains bladder
o Function
! Urination (micturition)= expelling (voiding) urine from
bladder
! Voluntary and involuntary by the aid of sphincters

"
"

Internal urethral sphincters (involuntary)
External urethral sphincters (voluntary)

Disorders of the Urinary System
•

Kidney disorders
o Acute renal failure
o Treatment : renal dialysis = filtering of kidneys though a
dialysis machine
! Hemodialysis (blood)
! Peritoneal dialysis (abdominal cavity)
! Mary have a shunt (permanent exchange site)
! Kidney transplant
o Disorders of ureters
! Strictures= abnormally narrow parts of the ureters
! Stones
o Disorders of the bladder
! Cystitis = inflammation of the bladder
" 10x more likely in femals
! tumors
o disorders of the urethra
! hypospadias= urethra opens on the undersurface of the
penis instead of at the end
! urethritis = inflammation of mucous membrane and
glands of urethra
! straddle injuries= ruptured urethra

Aging Effects of Urinary System
•
•
•
•

Urine

Polyuria= increased elimination of urine
Nocturia= urination at night
Incontinence= not able to hold urine
BUN (blood urea nitrogen) increase= increased amounts increases
chances of infection

•

•

Consituents
o Nitrogenous waste products
o Electrolytes
o Yellow pigment
Abnormalties tested in urinalysis = exam of urine
o Glucose
o Albumin=albuminuria
o Blood=hematuria
o Blood
o WBC – pus in urine
o Casts = molds found in kidney tubules
o

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

•

Hi mrs
...
Lymphatic System
~Pathway for the drainage of tissue fluid
• Lymphatic capillaries
o Microscopic vessels that drain excess fluid that does NOT
return to the heart
• Lymph
o Tissue fluid that enters the lymphatic capillaries
• Lymph Nodes
o Series of filters where bacteria and other foreign particles are
trapped/destroyed
o Comparison is like an oil filter in your car
•

•

•

Lacteals
o Specialized lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine that act
as a pathway for the transfer of digested fats into the
bloodstream
Lymphatic Vessels
o Named according to location
! Mamary : breast
! Tibial : lower thigh
! Femoral : thigh
o Axillary = all lymph from the upper extremities and breasts
o Inguinal= all lymph from the lower extremity
o Lyphatic ducts= drainage area for lymph
! Right lymphatic duct= received only lyph from the URQ,
right head, right neck, right thorx, and RU extremity
o EMPTIES INTO RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN VEIN
! Thoracic duct= larger
" Thoracic duct= larger
• Receives lymph from all other body parts
• First part of duct is enlarged to form a
cistern (temporary storage pouch)
• Chyle = milky fluid of fat and lymph
Lymphoid tissue
o Distributed throughout body and makes up specialized organs
o Removes impurities
o Processes lymphocytes

o Creates lymph nodes ( small rounded masses)
II
...
Thymus
• Key role in the development of immune system before birth and
during first few months of infancy
• Thymosin= hormone that promotes the growth and activity of
lymphocytes
•

Thymus is most active during early life

IV

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