Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

Disorders Part – 3
Paget's Disease of Breast
Paget's disease of the breast, also known as Paget's disease of the nipple, is a rare form of breast cancer
...
Although it often appears as
a skin condition, it is associated with an underlying breast cancer that may not always be immediately evident
...


2
...


4
...

6
...


Symptoms: The most common symptom is an eczema-like rash or redness on the nipple or areola
...
Some women may also experience burning or tingling sensations
...

Underlying cancer: While the symptoms of Paget's disease often affect only the skin of the nipple and areola, there is
an associated underlying breast cancer in most cases
...

Diagnosis: Diagnosis involves a physical examination, imaging tests (such as mammography or ultrasound), and often
a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells
...

Staging: Once Paget's disease of the breast is diagnosed, staging is carried out to determine the extent and spread of
the cancer
...

Treatment: Treatment options may include surgery (lumpectomy or mastectomy), radiation therapy, and sometimes
chemotherapy
...

Prognosis: The prognosis for Paget's disease of the breast varies depending on the stage at diagnosis and the
presence of any underlying breast cancer
...

Follow-up: Regular follow-up and monitoring are essential after treatment to check for any recurrence or new
developments
...
Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment can significantly
improve the chances of a successful outcome
...


Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects movement control
...
Here are some key points about Parkinson's
disease:
1
...


3
...


Symptoms: The primary symptoms of Parkinson's disease include tremors (typically at rest), bradykinesia (slowness of
movement), rigidity (muscle stiffness), and postural instability (balance problems)
...

Causes: The exact cause of Parkinson's disease is not well understood
...
Some cases of Parkinson's are associated with specific genetic mutations, but most
cases are considered sporadic
...
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in motor control, and its
deficiency leads to the characteristic movement problems of Parkinson's
...
A
neurologist typically assesses a person's medical history and conducts a physical examination to evaluate their

5
...

7
...


symptoms
...

Treatment: Although there is no cure for Parkinson's disease, various treatments are available to manage its
symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients
...
Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech
therapy may also be recommended
...

Progression: Parkinson's disease progresses slowly, and the severity of symptoms can vary from person to person
...

Non-motor symptoms: In addition to motor symptoms, Parkinson's disease can cause a wide range of non-motor
symptoms, including cognitive changes (such as dementia or memory problems), mood disturbances (depression and
anxiety), sleep disturbances, and autonomic dysfunction (problems with blood pressure regulation, digestion, and
other bodily functions)
...
Genetic studies and investigations into the role of
inflammation and oxidative stress in the brain are areas of active research
...
Support from healthcare professionals,
caregivers, and support groups is often essential to help manage the physical and emotional aspects of the disease
...
PID typically occurs as a result of the spread of bacteria from the vagina and cervix into the upper
reproductive tract
...
Here are
some important points about PID:
1
...

3
...


5
...


7
...


Causes: Most cases of PID are caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs), with Chlamydia and Gonorrhea being
the primary culprits
...

Risk factors: Several factors can increase the risk of developing PID, including having multiple sexual partners, a
history of STIs, recent insertion of an intrauterine device (IUD), and a history of PID
...
Some individuals with
PID may experience mild symptoms, while others have severe pain and complications
...
These tests may include blood tests, pelvic ultrasound, and sometimes laparoscopy (a minimally invasive
surgical procedure) to directly visualize the pelvic organs
...
Early diagnosis
and treatment are crucial to prevent these complications
...
In severe cases or when an abscess is
present, hospitalization and intravenous antibiotics may be necessary
...

Prevention: Preventing PID primarily involves practicing safe sex by using condoms and getting regular screening and
treatment for STIs
...

Follow-up: After treatment for PID, it is essential to have follow-up appointments with a healthcare provider to ensure
that the infection has been successfully treated and to monitor for any complications or recurrence
...
Early detection and appropriate treatment are
essential to reduce the risk of long-term complications
...


Pericarditis & Pericardial Effusions
Pericarditis and pericardial effusions are medical conditions that involve the pericardium, a double-layered membrane
surrounding the heart
...

1
...


Pericarditis:
 Pericarditis is the inflammation of the pericardium, the thin sac that surrounds the heart
...

 Symptoms of pericarditis may include chest pain, which is often sharp and worsened by breathing, coughing,
or lying down
...

 Treatment for pericarditis depends on the underlying cause
...
In severe cases,
corticosteroids may be prescribed
...
It can result from a
variety of conditions, including pericarditis, heart failure, infection, trauma, cancer, or kidney disease
...

 If a pericardial effusion is causing significant compression of the heart, it can lead to a condition known as
cardiac tamponade, which is a medical emergency
...

 Treatment of pericardial effusion depends on its size and the underlying cause
...
Larger effusions may require draining the fluid via a
procedure called pericardiocentesis, which involves inserting a needle or a catheter into the pericardial sac to
remove the excess fluid
...
It is important to seek
medical attention if you experience symptoms like chest pain, especially if it is associated with difficulty breathing or
other concerning signs
...
The underlying cause of pericarditis or pericardial effusion will also need to be
addressed to prevent recurrence
...
This condition can lead to bleeding during pregnancy and is associated with certain risks for both
the mother and the baby
...
Here are some key
points about placenta previa:
1
...

 Partial previa: The placenta partially covers the cervix
...


2
...


4
...


6
...
However, it is more common in women who have
had previous uterine surgeries, such as a cesarean section, and in women who have had multiple pregnancies
...
However, some women may not experience any symptoms until they have bleeding episodes
...

Diagnosis: Placenta previa is typically diagnosed through ultrasound examinations, which can determine the placental
location relative to the cervix
...
It
may also increase the risk of a cesarean section delivery
...
The positioning of the
placenta can also affect the baby's growth and development
...

 If diagnosed early and the placenta is only partially covering the cervix, there is a chance it may migrate away
from the cervix as the pregnancy progresses
...

 In some cases, if there is heavy or life-threatening bleeding, an emergency cesarean section may be
necessary, even if the pregnancy is not full term
...

Women with placenta previa should have a comprehensive care plan in place with their healthcare provider
...
If you suspect you have placenta previa or experience any vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, seek immediate
medical attention
...
It is
typically caused by an infection, most commonly bacterial, viral, or fungal
...
Here are some key points about pneumonia:
1
...


3
...


Causes: Pneumonia is often caused by infectious agents, including:
 Bacteria: Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common bacterial cause, but other bacteria can also be
responsible
...

 Fungi: Fungal pneumonia is less common and often affects people with weakened immune systems
...
In some cases, further tests such as blood tests or CT scans may be necessary to
confirm the diagnosis and identify the causative agent
...
Bacterial pneumonia is typically treated
with antibiotics, while viral pneumonia may not respond to antibiotics and is managed with supportive care
...


6
...
Severe cases may require hospitalization and oxygen
therapy
...

 Practicing good hand hygiene: Regular handwashing can help reduce the spread of infectious agents
...

 Maintaining a healthy lifestyle: A balanced diet, regular exercise, and adequate rest can bolster the immune
system
...
Complications may include pleurisy (inflammation of the
lining around the lungs), lung abscesses, or respiratory failure
...
However, it can be
serious, particularly in individuals with pre-existing health issues or weakened immune systems
...


Polycythemia vera
Polycythemia vera (PV) is a rare, chronic blood disorder characterized by the overproduction of red blood cells in the
bone marrow
...
Here are some key points about
polycythemia vera:
1
...


3
...


5
...


Causes: PV is caused by a mutation in the JAK2 gene, which leads to the overproduction of blood cells
...

Symptoms: Many people with PV may not exhibit any symptoms, especially in the early stages
...
Some individuals may also experience an enlarged spleen
...
Blood clots can be particularly dangerous, as they may lead to stroke, heart attack, or
pulmonary embolism
...

Diagnosis: Diagnosis of PV involves blood tests to assess the levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
...
Bone marrow biopsies may also be performed to
assess the bone marrow's appearance
...

Common treatments include:
 Phlebotomy: Regular removal of a specific amount of blood to reduce the number of red blood cells
...

 Management of symptoms and complications: Addressing specific symptoms and complications as they
arise
...
However,
the condition is usually chronic and may require ongoing care
...

Polycythemia vera is a serious blood disorder that requires ongoing medical management and attention
...
Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial for managing the condition and reducing the risk
of complications
...
This excessive skin cell production results in the formation of red, scaly, and often itchy patches or plaques on
the skin
...
Here are
some key points about psoriasis:
1
...


3
...

5
...


7
...


Causes: The exact cause of psoriasis is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic,
environmental, and immune system factors
...

Types: There are several different types of psoriasis, including:
 Plaque psoriasis: The most common type, characterized by raised, red plaques with silvery scales
...

 Inverse psoriasis: Found in skin folds and characterized by smooth, red, inflamed patches
...

 Erythrodermic psoriasis: A rare but severe form that causes widespread redness and scaling of the skin
...

These patches can occur anywhere on the body but are commonly found on the elbows, knees, scalp, and lower back
...

Triggers: Psoriasis symptoms can be triggered or exacerbated by various factors, including stress, infections, skin
injuries (such as cuts or sunburns), certain medications, and exposure to cold, dry weather
...
In some cases, a skin
biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis
...
These treatments may include topical corticosteroids, light therapy
(phototherapy), oral or injected medications, and lifestyle changes
...

Prognosis: Psoriasis is a chronic condition that tends to come and go
...
Effective management and treatment can help control symptoms and
prevent complications
...
Coping strategies, support from healthcare professionals, and support groups can help
individuals manage the emotional aspects of psoriasis
...
It is essential for individuals with
psoriasis to work closely with healthcare providers to develop a personalized treatment plan and to monitor for any
potential complications or associated conditions
...

The dental pulp contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
...
There are two main types of pulpitis:
1
...
Common causes of reversible pulpitis include dental cavities (caries) that have not yet
reached the pulp or minor tooth trauma
...
Reversible pulpitis can often be managed by addressing the underlying cause (e
...
, treating
dental decay) and may require dental fillings or other restorative treatments
...


Irreversible Pulpitis: Irreversible pulpitis is more severe and typically occurs when there is significant inflammation,
infection, or damage to the dental pulp
...
Irreversible pulpitis may require root canal therapy, a dental procedure
in which the infected or damaged pulp is removed, and the tooth is sealed to prevent further infection
...

Spontaneous pain that occurs without any apparent trigger
...

Pain that may radiate to the jaw, ear, or other areas of the face
...

Treatment for pulpitis depends on the severity of the condition
...
For irreversible
pulpitis, root canal therapy is often necessary to save the tooth and relieve the pain
...
Early intervention can help prevent further complications and preserve the affected tooth
...


Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints but can also impact various
other parts of the body
...
RA is a systemic condition, which means it can affect multiple
organ systems
...


2
...

4
...


6
...
It is believed to involve a combination of
genetic, environmental, and immune system factors
...

Symptoms: RA typically causes joint symptoms, such as pain, swelling, and stiffness
...
Over time, joint damage
can lead to deformities
...

Joints Affected: Rheumatoid arthritis can affect various joints, including those in the hands, wrists, knees, and feet
...
Joint involvement can vary from person to person
...
The criteria for diagnosing RA have evolved over time, and healthcare providers use these criteria
to make an accurate diagnosis
...
Treatment may involve:
 Medications: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs
(DMARDs), and biologic therapies
...

 Lifestyle modifications: Adequate rest, a balanced diet, and regular exercise can help manage the condition
...

Prognosis: RA is a chronic condition, and the course of the disease can vary widely
...


improve long-term outcomes and prevent joint damage
...

Impact on Quality of Life: RA can have a significant impact on a person's daily life, causing pain, disability, and
reduced quality of life
...

Management of rheumatoid arthritis often requires a multidisciplinary approach, with healthcare providers, including
rheumatologists, working closely with patients to develop a personalized treatment plan
...


Skin Cancer
Skin cancer is a type of cancer that originates in the skin
...

There are several types of skin cancer, with the most common being basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma,
and melanoma
...


2
...


4
...


6
...

8
...
It usually appears as a small, raised,
shiny bump or a pink growth on the skin
...

 Melanoma: Melanoma is less common but more aggressive
...
Melanomas are often dark in color and may have irregular borders
...
Other
risk factors include having fair skin, a history of sunburns, a family history of skin cancer, and a weakened immune
system
...
This includes using sunscreen,
wearing protective clothing (such as wide-brimmed hats and sunglasses), seeking shade, and avoiding indoor tanning
beds
...

Treatment: Treatment for skin cancer depends on the type and stage of the cancer
...

Prognosis: The prognosis for skin cancer depends on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as how early
it is detected
...

Early Detection: Early detection is crucial for favorable outcomes
...

Prevalence: Skin cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide
...

Given the high prevalence of skin cancer, it is important to protect your skin from excessive sun exposure, regularly
check your skin for any changes or suspicious growths, and seek prompt medical attention if you notice any
concerning skin changes
...


Stroke
A stroke, also known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is a medical emergency that occurs when there is a
disruption of blood flow to the brain
...
Strokes can result in damage to brain tissue and can have a wide range
of physical and cognitive effects
...


2
...


4
...


6
...

8
...
It occurs when
a blood clot (thrombus) or an embolus (a clot that travels from another part of the body) blocks blood flow
to a part of the brain
...
Hemorrhagic strokes are less common but tend to be more severe
...
Lifestyle factors such as poor diet and
lack of exercise can also contribute to stroke risk
...

 Trouble speaking or understanding speech
...

 Vision problems
...

FAST Acronym: To help recognize the signs of a stroke, remember the FAST acronym:
 Face drooping
...

 Speech difficulty
...

Diagnosis: Stroke diagnosis often involves medical imaging such as a CT (computed tomography) scan or MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) to assess the brain and determine the type of stroke
...

Treatment: Treatment of a stroke depends on the type and cause
...
For certain cases, mechanical clot removal
(thrombectomy) may be performed
...

Rehabilitation: After a stroke, rehabilitation is a crucial part of recovery
...

Prevention: Reducing the risk of stroke involves managing risk factors through lifestyle changes, such as maintaining
a healthy diet, exercising regularly, quitting smoking, controlling blood pressure and diabetes, and taking prescribed
medications as directed by a healthcare provider
...
Early intervention and appropriate treatment can make a
significant difference in the outcome for individuals who experience a stroke
...
In lupus, the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy
tissues, leading to inflammation, pain, and damage
...


2
...
Hormonal changes, exposure to ultraviolet light, certain infections, and some
medications can trigger or worsen lupus symptoms
...
Common
symptoms include:














3
...


5
...


7
...

Other forms include cutaneous lupus (limited to the skin), drug-induced lupus (caused by certain medications), and
neonatal lupus (a rare condition affecting newborns born to mothers with lupus)
...

Diagnosis often involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, blood tests, and other laboratory
tests
...

Treatment: There is no cure for lupus, but various treatments are available to manage the disease and its symptoms
...
Lifestyle modifications, such as
sun protection and stress management, are also important
...
Many people with lupus can lead relatively normal lives
with proper management and treatment
...
In some cases, lupus can lead to severe complications affecting organs like the kidneys, heart, or central
nervous system
...
Coping strategies, support from healthcare providers, and
support groups can help individuals manage the emotional aspects of lupus
...
Regular medical check-ups and
monitoring are essential to assess the response to treatment and address any emerging complications
...
It is one of the most
common and well-known complex heart conditions in children
...
These four defects include:
1
...


3
...
Pulmonary
stenosis restricts blood flow to the lungs, making it harder for the blood to become oxygenated
...
This hole allows oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to mix with oxygen-rich
blood from the left ventricle
...
This allows the aorta to receive blood from both
ventricles, causing it to carry some oxygen-poor blood
...


Right Ventricular Hypertrophy: The right ventricle, which pumps blood to the lungs, becomes thicker and more
muscular due to the increased workload of pumping blood through the narrowed pulmonary valve
...

The combination of these four heart defects results in insufficient oxygenation of the blood, leading to symptoms
such as cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes) due to the presence of oxygen-poor
blood
...
The primary
surgical procedure is known as "complete repair," which is performed during infancy
...
This
procedure allows for more normal blood flow and oxygenation
...

With advances in pediatric cardiology and surgical techniques, many children with Tetralogy of Fallot can lead healthy,
active lives
...


Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
...
TB is a
significant global health concern, and it spreads through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes
...

2
...


4
...


Causes: TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
...

Symptoms: The symptoms of tuberculosis can vary depending on the form of the disease
...
However, the infection can become active later in life
...

Treatment: TB is treatable with a combination of antibiotics over an extended period, typically six to nine months
...
It is crucial to
complete the full course of treatment to ensure that all the bacteria are eradicated and to prevent drug-resistant
strains from developing
...


7
...


Drug-Resistant TB: Drug-resistant forms of TB, such as multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drugresistant TB (XDR-TB), are more difficult to treat and may require more extended treatment with second-line
antibiotics
...

 Identifying and treating people with active TB to prevent its spread
...

 Ensuring good ventilation in indoor spaces to reduce the concentration of infectious aerosols
...

Global Impact: TB remains a major global health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries
...

TB is a treatable and preventable disease, but it requires coordinated efforts from healthcare systems, public health
organizations, and individuals to control its spread and minimize its impact on affected communities
...
This inflammation can damage
blood vessels and reduce blood flow to various organs and tissues, causing a wide range of symptoms
...
Here are some key points about vasculitis:
1
...


3
...


5
...


7
...
The exact cause is often
unknown, but it can be associated with infections, certain medications, autoimmune diseases, or other underlying
health conditions
...
Some common types include:
 Large-vessel vasculitis: Giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis
...

 Small-vessel vasculitis: Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly Wegener's granulomatosis), microscopic
polyangiitis, and eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly Churg-Strauss syndrome)
...

Symptoms: The symptoms of vasculitis can vary widely, but common symptoms may include fever, fatigue, weight
loss, muscle and joint pain, skin rashes, and nerve-related symptoms (such as numbness or tingling)
...

Diagnosis: Diagnosing vasculitis can be challenging because its symptoms overlap with many other conditions
...

Treatment: The treatment of vasculitis typically involves the use of immunosuppressive medications to reduce
inflammation and prevent further damage to blood vessels
...
In some cases, high-dose corticosteroids are used in the initial phase to control severe symptoms
...
In some cases, vasculitis can be managed effectively, and individuals can lead relatively normal lives
...

Monitoring: Regular medical follow-up and monitoring are essential to assess the response to treatment, manage
potential side effects of medications, and detect any disease flares
...
Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial for
managing vasculitis and reducing the risk of complications
...
It leads to an accumulation of copper in various organs, primarily the liver and brain
...

Here are some key points about Wilson disease:
1
...


3
...


5
...


7
...
These mutations impair the liver's ability to properly process and
excrete copper, resulting in copper accumulation
...
Common symptoms include:
 Hepatic symptoms: Hepatitis, jaundice, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), and liver failure
...

 Other symptoms: Kayser-Fleischer rings (copper deposits in the eye), kidney problems, and joint issues
...
Imaging studies and liver
biopsies may also be used to assess the extent of liver damage
...
Treatment typically involves lifelong therapy with medications called chelating agents,
which bind to excess copper and facilitate its elimination from the body
...
In some cases, liver transplantation may be necessary if the liver is severely
damaged
...

Regular monitoring and adherence to the prescribed treatment plan are essential to prevent copper buildup and
associated complications
...
People with one mutated gene are
carriers but do not exhibit symptoms
...
Foods high in copper, such as liver, shellfish, and nuts, are limited
...
Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for achieving the best possible outcome and maintaining
good health

---