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COURSE: PSYCHOLOGY
SCHOOL: HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DETAILED NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1
...
Definition of Psychology:




Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
...

Psychology encompasses various subfields, including clinical psychology,
cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and
more
...
Historical Roots:


Ancient Philosophical Influences:
o
o





Early Experimental Psychology:
o Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the formal beginning of
psychology as a scientific discipline
...

o Functionalism (James): Emphasized the adaptive functions of
behavior and mental processes
...


Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner):
o



Plato and Aristotle: Explored topics related to the mind, behavior,
and emotions
...


Behaviorists focused on observable behavior and the environmental
factors that shape it, rejecting the study of mental processes
...


3
...

Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory,
language, and problem-solving
...

Social Psychology: Focuses on how individuals think, feel, and behave in
social situations, exploring topics such as conformity, prejudice, and
interpersonal relationships
...


4
...

Correlational Method: Examines the relationship between variables without
manipulation, assessing the degree of association between them
...

Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines,
including obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and debriefing
participants
...
Current Research and Applications:



Interdisciplinary Nature: Psychology intersects with various other fields,
including neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and economics
...


References:





Schacter, D
...
, Gilbert, D
...
, & Wegner, D
...
(2017)
...
"
Kalat, J
...
(2016)
...
"
Myers, D
...
(2014)
...
"
American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
1
...

o Plato: Emphasized the importance of reason and intellect in
understanding human behavior
...

Roman and Medieval Influence:
o

Psychological concepts were further developed during the Roman and
medieval periods, with scholars such as Augustine and Aquinas
discussing the nature of the mind and soul
...
Early Experimental Psychology:


Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):
o
o



Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in
1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific
discipline
...


Edward Titchener (1867-1927):
o
o

A student of Wundt, Titchener further developed the ideas of
structuralism, emphasizing the systematic study of conscious
experience
...


3
...

Functionalism focused on understanding how mental processes serve
to help individuals adapt to their environment
...


4
...

Psychoanalysis revolutionized the understanding of human behavior
and influenced various fields, including psychiatry, literature, and art
...
Watson (1878-1958) and B
...
Skinner (1904-1990):
o
o
o

Behaviorism emerged as a reaction against introspection and the
subjective nature of early psychological approaches
...

Skinner further developed behaviorism, proposing the concept of
operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of consequences in
shaping behavior
...
Cognitive Revolution and Modern Perspectives:


Cognitive Psychology:
o
o



The cognitive revolution, which began in the 1950s, shifted the focus
of psychology back to the study of mental processes
...


Contemporary Perspectives:
o
o

Psychology today encompasses a wide range of perspectives, including
biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and
sociocultural approaches
...


References:




Schultz, D
...
, & Schultz, S
...
(2016)
...
"
Cengage Learning
...
J
...
"A history of modern psychology
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
1
...

Scientific Approach:
o



o



Psychology employs the scientific method, which involves systematic
observation, measurement, and analysis of data to draw conclusions
and make predictions
...


2
...

Experimental designs allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables
...


Random Assignment:
o

Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions
to minimize the influence of extraneous variables and ensure that
groups are equivalent at the outset of the study
...
Correlational Methods:


Correlation Coefficient:
o
o



Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulation
...


Limitations of Correlational Research:
o
o

Correlation does not imply causation; it only indicates that two
variables are related
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

5

4
...

Observational studies provide insights into naturally occurring
behavior but may be subject to observer bias and reactivity
...

Surveys allow researchers to collect data from large samples efficiently
but may be subject to response bias and wording effects
...
Ethical Considerations in Research:


Informed Consent:
o



Confidentiality:
o



Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before
they can participate in a study, ensuring that participants are aware of
the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits
...


Debriefing:
o

Researchers are obligated to provide participants with a debriefing
after the study, informing them about the study's purpose, addressing
any concerns or questions, and providing appropriate referrals for
follow-up if necessary
...
J
...
B
...
S
...
"Research
methods in psychology
...

Gravetter, F
...
, & Forzano, L
...
(2018)
...
" Cengage Learning
...


4
...
Introduction to Biological Psychology:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

6





Definition:
o Biological psychology, also known as biopsychology or neuroscience,
is the branch of psychology that explores the biological foundations of
behavior and mental processes
...


2
...


Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
o

Consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the CNS, transmitting
sensory information to the CNS and carrying motor commands from
the CNS to the muscles and glands
...
Neurons and Neurotransmission:


Neuron Structure:
o



Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system,
consisting of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon
...

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons that transmit
signals across synapses to other neurons, muscles, or glands
...
Brain Structure and Function:


Major Brain Structures:
o
o



The brain is divided into distinct regions, each with specialized
functions
...


Functional Brain Imaging:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

7

o

Techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
positron emission tomography (PET) allow researchers to visualize
brain activity during various tasks and states
...
Endocrine System and Hormones:


Endocrine Glands:
o
o



The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream
...


Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis:
o

The HPA axis is a key neuroendocrine system involved in the body's
response to stress, regulating the release of cortisol and other stress
hormones
...
Genetics and Behavior:


Behavioral Genetics:
o
o



Behavioral genetics examines the role of genes and heredity in shaping
behavior and individual differences
...


Gene-Environment Interactions:
o

Genes and the environment interact to influence behavior, with genetic
predispositions often interacting with environmental factors to produce
observable traits and behaviors
...
Brain Plasticity and Development:


Neuroplasticity:
o
o



The brain exhibits remarkable plasticity, with the ability to reorganize
and adapt in response to experience, learning, and injury
...


Developmental Trajectories:
o
o

Brain development follows a complex trajectory, with critical periods
during which specific neural circuits are formed and refined
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

8

References:





Kalat, J
...
(2016)
...
" Cengage Learning
...
R
...
"Physiology of behavior
...

Bear, M
...
, Connors, B
...
, & Paradiso, M
...
(2016)
...
" Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...


5
...
Introduction to Sensation and Perception:




Definition:
o Sensation refers to the process by which sensory organs detect and
respond to sensory information from the environment, while
perception involves the interpretation and organization of sensory
information by the brain
...


2
...

Key structures include the retina, which contains photoreceptor cells
(rods and cones), and the visual cortex, which processes visual
information in the brain
...

Key structures include the cochlea, which contains hair cells that
transduce sound waves into neural signals, and the auditory cortex,
which processes auditory information in the brain
...

The gustatory system detects and processes chemical molecules in
food, allowing us to perceive different tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter,
umami)
...

Key structures include the skin, which contains sensory receptors such
as mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors, and the
somatosensory cortex, which processes somatosensory information in
the brain
...
Perceptual Processes:


Bottom-Up Processing:
o
o



Bottom-up processing involves the analysis of sensory information
from the environment, starting with basic features and building up to
complex perceptions
...


Top-Down Processing:
o
o

Top-down processing involves the use of prior knowledge,
expectations, and context to interpret and organize sensory information
...


4
...


Depth Perception:
o
o

Depth perception allows us to perceive the three-dimensional structure
of the world, including the distance and relative positions of objects
...


5
...


Shape constancy refers to the perception of an object's shape as
constant, even when its retinal image shape changes due to changes in
viewing angle
...


References:




Goldstein, E
...
(2018)
...
" Cengage Learning
...
M
...
R
...
M
...
M
...
S
...
L
...
"Sensation & perception
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
CONSCIOUSNESS
1
...

It is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various aspects of subjective
experience, including wakefulness, self-awareness, and the ability to
experience and reflect upon one's mental states
...
States of Consciousness:


Waking Consciousness:
o



Waking consciousness is the state of consciousness experienced during
wakefulness, characterized by alertness, awareness of the external
environment, and cognitive processing
...


3
...

Information Integration Theory:
o



Information integration theory proposes that consciousness emerges
from the integration of information processed by multiple specialized
brain regions, with a higher degree of integration corresponding to a
higher level of consciousness
...


4
...

NREM sleep consists of several stages characterized by progressively
deeper levels of sleep, while REM sleep is associated with vivid
dreaming and heightened brain activity
...


Dreaming:
o
o

Dreams occur predominantly during REM sleep and are characterized
by vivid sensory experiences, emotions, and narrative content
...


5
...


Hypnosis is a trance-like state characterized by heightened
suggestibility, focused attention, and a reduced awareness of the
external environment
...

Drugs can have diverse effects on consciousness, ranging from
stimulant effects (e
...
, caffeine, cocaine) to depressant effects (e
...
,
alcohol, opioids) to hallucinogenic effects (e
...
, LSD, psilocybin)
...
J
...
"Global workspace theory of consciousness: toward a
cognitive neuroscience of human experience
...

Tononi, G
...
"Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional
manifesto
...

Hobson, J
...
, Pace-Schott, E
...
, & Stickgold, R
...
"Dreaming and the
brain: Toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
LEARNING
1
...

Importance:
o

Learning plays a fundamental role in shaping behavior, cognition, and
emotional responses, allowing individuals to adapt to their
environment and acquire new knowledge and skills
...
Classical Conditioning:


Overview:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

13

o



Key Concepts:
o



Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a
stimulus that naturally elicits that response
...


Examples:
o

Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs demonstrated classical
conditioning, in which the sound of a bell (CS) became associated with
the presentation of food (UCS), leading to the dogs salivating (CR) in
response to the bell alone
...
Operant Conditioning:


Overview:
o



Key Concepts:
o



Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is
strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it
...
negative (removal of a stimulus)
reinforcement/punishment
...


4
...


Modeling, vicarious reinforcement, vicarious punishment
...


5
...


Latent learning, insight learning, cognitive maps, observational
learning processes
...


6
...


Learning principles are used in various behavioral interventions,
including behavior modification programs, cognitive-behavioral
therapy (CBT), and applied behavior analysis (ABA)
...


References:



Domjan, M
...
"The principles of learning and behavior
...

Schultz, D
...
, & Schultz, S
...
(2016)
...
"
Cengage Learning
...


8
...
Introduction to Memory:




Definition:
o Memory is the cognitive process by which information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved over time
...


2
...
g
...

Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) and echoic memory (auditory
sensory memory) are two types of sensory memory
...
g
...
g
...

STM is thought to rely on temporary activation of neural circuits in the
prefrontal cortex
...

LTM is subdivided into declarative (explicit) memory (e
...
, facts,
events) and non-declarative (implicit) memory (e
...
, skills, habits)
...
Processes of Memory:


Encoding:
o
o

Encoding involves the processing of sensory information into a form
that can be stored in memory
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

16



Storage:
o
o



Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time
...


Retrieval:
o
o

Retrieval involves the process of accessing and bringing stored
information into conscious awareness
...


4
...


The levels of processing model suggests that the depth of processing
during encoding determines the strength of the resulting memory trace,
with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better retention
...


5
...


Memory Errors:
o

Memory is not always accurate and can be subject to errors such as
misinformation effects (incorporation of misleading information into
memory), source monitoring errors (misattribution of the source of

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

17

information), and false memories (recollection of events that did not
occur)
...
Neurobiology of Memory:


Brain Structures Involved:
o



Neurotransmitters and Memory:
o



Memory involves complex interactions among multiple brain regions,
including the hippocampus (critical for forming new memories),
amygdala (involved in emotional memory), and prefrontal cortex
(important for working memory and executive functions)
...


Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):
o

LTP is a neural mechanism thought to underlie the strengthening of
synaptic connections in response to repeated stimulation, contributing
to the formation of long-term memories
...
(2012)
...
" Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29
...
(2017)
...
" Journal of neurophysiology, 117(4), 1785-1796
...
L
...
C
...
"The critical role of retrieval practice
in long-term retention
...
COGNITION
1
...

Scope:
o

Cognition encompasses a wide range of processes, including
perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, decisionmaking, and reasoning
...
Attention:


Selective Attention:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

18

o
o


Selective attention involves focusing cognitive resources on specific
stimuli while ignoring others
...


Divided Attention:
o

Divided attention refers to the ability to attend to multiple tasks
simultaneously, often resulting in reduced performance on each task
due to limited cognitive resources
...
Memory and Learning:


Encoding:
o
o



Storage:
o



Encoding involves the processing of sensory information into a form
that can be stored in memory
...


Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time,
involving processes such as sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory
...


4
...


Language acquisition refers to the process by which individuals
acquire and develop language skills, beginning in infancy and
continuing throughout childhood
...


5
...


Decision-making involves evaluating alternatives and choosing the
best course of action, influenced by factors such as cognitive biases,
emotions, and social influences
...


6
...


Inductive reasoning involves inferring general principles or patterns
from specific observations or examples, using probabilistic reasoning
...


References:




Sternberg, R
...
, & Sternberg, K
...
"Cognitive psychology
...

Anderson, J
...
(2014)
...
" Worth
Publishers
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

20

10
...
Introduction to Developmental Psychology:




Definition:
o Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how individuals
grow, change, and develop across the lifespan, from infancy to old age
...


2
...


Social Learning Theory (Bandura):
o



Freud's psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the role of unconscious
conflicts and early experiences in shaping development, with a focus
on stages such as the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages
...


Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner):
o

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance
of environmental contexts and systems (microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) in influencing development,
highlighting the dynamic interactions between individuals and their
environments
...
Prenatal Development and Birth:


Prenatal Stages:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

21

o



Teratogens:
o



Prenatal development occurs in three stages: the germinal stage
(conception to 2 weeks), the embryonic stage (2 weeks to 8 weeks),
and the fetal stage (8 weeks to birth)
...


Birth and Neonatal Period:
o
o

Birth involves the process of labor and delivery, culminating in the
birth of the infant
...


4
...


Brain development begins in prenatal life and continues throughout
childhood and adolescence, involving processes such as neurogenesis,
synaptic pruning, and myelination
...


5
...


Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory:
o

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social
interaction, culture, and language in cognitive development, proposing

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

22

that learning occurs within the zone of proximal development (the gap
between what a child can do independently and what they can do with
assistance)
...
Social and Emotional Development:


Attachment Theory (Bowlby):
o



Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of early attachments
between infants and caregivers in shaping social and emotional
development, highlighting the role of secure base and internal working
models
...
mistrust (infancy), autonomy vs
...
role confusion (adolescence)
...
E
...
"Development through the lifespan
...

Santrock, J
...
(2019)
...
" McGraw-Hill Education
...


11
...
Introduction to Personality Psychology:




Definition:
o Personality psychology is the scientific study of individual differences
in patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that distinguish one
person from another
...


2
...

Key concepts include the id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms, and
psychosexual stages of development
...

Trait theories such as the Big Five model (openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) provide a framework for
understanding personality traits
...


Social-Cognitive Theory (Bandura):
o
o

Social-cognitive theory emphasizes the interaction between cognitive
processes, social influences, and environmental factors in shaping
personality and behavior
...


3
...

Examples include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI), NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), and Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI)
...
g
...

Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
...

Observational methods such as rating scales, behavioral coding
systems, and structured observations are used to assess specific
behaviors or interactions
...
Personality Development:


Temperament:
o
o



Temperament refers to individual differences in emotional reactivity,
activity level, and attentional focus, which emerge early in life and
shape the development of personality
...


Stages of Development:
o
o

Personality development occurs across the lifespan, with key
developmental tasks and challenges at different stages of life (e
...
,
infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age)
...


5
...

The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition) provides criteria for diagnosing personality disorders,
including clusters such as cluster A (odd or eccentric), cluster B
(dramatic, emotional, or erratic), and cluster C (anxious or fearful)
...


Etiology and Treatment:
o
o

Personality disorders have complex etiologies involving genetic,
biological, psychological, and environmental factors
...
g
...
g
...


References:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

25





Feist, J
...
J
...
"Theories of personality
...

Larsen, R
...
, & Buss, D
...
(2017)
...
" McGraw-Hill Education
...


12
...
Introduction to Social Psychology:




Definition:
o Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel,
and behave in social contexts, including the influence of other people,
groups, and the social environment
...


2
...

Factors such as stereotypes, schemas, and social categorization
influence social perception
...


3
...

Attitudes can be measured using self-report scales and are influenced
by factors such as direct experience, social learning, and cognitive
dissonance
...

Persuasion strategies include central route processing (logic and
argumentation) and peripheral route processing (emotional appeals,
credibility, attractiveness)
...
Prejudice and Discrimination:


Prejudice:
o



Discrimination:
o



Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or beliefs held toward individuals
or groups based on their membership in a particular social category
(e
...
, race, ethnicity, gender, religion)
...


Implicit Bias:
o

Implicit bias refers to unconscious or automatic stereotypes, attitudes,
and prejudices that influence behavior and decision-making, often
operating outside of conscious awareness
...
Conformity and Obedience:


Conformity:
o
o



Conformity is the tendency to adjust one's thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors to align with the norms of a group or society, even in the
absence of explicit pressure or coercion
...
g
...


Obedience:
o
o

Obedience refers to compliance with direct commands or orders from
authority figures, often involving the violation of personal or moral
principles
...


6
...


Interpersonal Relationships:
o
o

Interpersonal relationships encompass the connections and interactions
between individuals, including friendships, romantic relationships, and
family relationships
...


References:




Aronson, E
...
D
...
M
...
"Social psychology
...

Baumeister, R
...
, & Bushman, B
...
(2016)
...
" Cengage Learning
...


TEXTBOOKS
· Psychology" by Daniel L
...
Gilbert, and Daniel M
...

· "Introduction to Psychology" by James W
...

· "Psychology" by David G
...

RESEARCH PAPERS






Pavlov, I
...
(1927)
...
"
Bandura, A
...
"Social Learning Theory
...
(1952)
...
"
Freud, S
...
"The Interpretation of Dreams
...
(1963)
...
"

ONLINE RESOURCES



American Psychological Association (APA) website: Provides resources on
various topics in psychology, including research papers, guidelines, and news
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

28

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

29



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