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COURSE: PSYCHOLOGY
SCHOOL: HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DETAILED NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1
...
Definition of Psychology:

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

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
...

Psychology encompasses various subfields, including clinical psychology,
cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and
more
...
Historical Roots:


Ancient Philosophical Influences:
o
o





Early Experimental Psychology:
o Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the formal beginning of
psychology as a scientific discipline
...

o Functionalism (James): Emphasized the adaptive functions of
behavior and mental processes
...


Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner):
o



Plato and Aristotle: Explored topics related to the mind, behavior,
and emotions
...


Behaviorists focused on observable behavior and the environmental
factors that shape it, rejecting the study of mental processes
...


3
...

Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory,
language, and problem-solving
...

Social Psychology: Focuses on how individuals think, feel, and behave in
social situations, exploring topics such as conformity, prejudice, and
interpersonal relationships
...


4
...

Correlational Method: Examines the relationship between variables without
manipulation, assessing the degree of association between them
...

Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines,
including obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and debriefing
participants
...
Current Research and Applications:



Interdisciplinary Nature: Psychology intersects with various other fields,
including neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and economics
...


References:
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



Schacter, D
...
, Gilbert, D
...
, & Wegner, D
...
(2017)
...
"
Kalat, J
...
(2016)
...
"
Myers, D
...
(2014)
...
"
American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
1
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o Plato: Emphasized the importance of reason and intellect in
understanding human behavior
...

Roman and Medieval Influence:
o

Psychological concepts were further developed during the Roman and
medieval periods, with scholars such as Augustine and Aquinas
discussing the nature of the mind and soul
...
Early Experimental Psychology:


Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):
o
o



Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in
1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific
discipline
...


Edward Titchener (1867-1927):
o
o

A student of Wundt, Titchener further developed the ideas of
structuralism, emphasizing the systematic study of conscious
experience
...


3
...

Functionalism focused on understanding how mental processes serve
to help individuals adapt to their environment
...


4
...

Psychoanalysis revolutionized the understanding of human behavior
and influenced various fields, including psychiatry, literature, and art
...
Watson (1878-1958) and B
...
Skinner (1904-1990):
o
o
o

Behaviorism emerged as a reaction against introspection and the
subjective nature of early psychological approaches
...

Skinner further developed behaviorism, proposing the concept of
operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of consequences in
shaping behavior
...
Cognitive Revolution and Modern Perspectives:


Cognitive Psychology:
o
o



The cognitive revolution, which began in the 1950s, shifted the focus
of psychology back to the study of mental processes
...


Contemporary Perspectives:
o
o

Psychology today encompasses a wide range of perspectives, including
biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and
sociocultural approaches
...


References:




Schultz, D
...
, & Schultz, S
...
(2016)
...
"
Cengage Learning
...
J
...
"A history of modern psychology
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
1
...

Scientific Approach:
o



o



Psychology employs the scientific method, which involves systematic
observation, measurement, and analysis of data to draw conclusions
and make predictions
...


2
...

Experimental designs allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables
...


Random Assignment:
o

Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions
to minimize the influence of extraneous variables and ensure that
groups are equivalent at the outset of the study
...
Correlational Methods:


Correlation Coefficient:
o
o



Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulation
...


Limitations of Correlational Research:
o
o

Correlation does not imply causation; it only indicates that two
variables are related
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

5

4
...

Observational studies provide insights into naturally occurring
behavior but may be subject to observer bias and reactivity
...

Surveys allow researchers to collect data from large samples efficiently
but may be subject to response bias and wording effects
...
Ethical Considerations in Research:


Informed Consent:
o



Confidentiality:
o



Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before
they can participate in a study, ensuring that participants are aware of
the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits
...


Debriefing:
o

Researchers are obligated to provide participants with a debriefing
after the study, informing them about the study's purpose, addressing
any concerns or questions, and providing appropriate referrals for
follow-up if necessary
...
J
...
B
...
S
...
"Research
methods in psychology
...

Gravetter, F
...
, & Forzano, L
...
(2018)
...
" Cengage Learning
...


4
...
Introduction to Biological Psychology:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

6





Definition:
o Biological psychology, also known as biopsychology or neuroscience,
is the branch of psychology that explores the biological foundations of
behavior and mental processes
...


2
...


Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
o

Consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the CNS, transmitting
sensory information to the CNS and carrying motor commands from
the CNS to the muscles and glands
...
Neurons and Neurotransmission:


Neuron Structure:
o



Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system,
consisting of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon
...

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons that
touch, pressure, temperature, and the position of our limbs in space
...


3
...

Example: When viewing a scene, bottom-up processing involves
detecting and combining individual visual elements (such as edges,
colors, and textures) to perceive objects and scenes
...

Example: When hearing speech in a noisy environment, top-down
processing involves using knowledge of language and context to fill in
missing or ambiguous sounds and words
...
Perceptual Organization:


Gestalt Principles:
o



Gestalt psychologists identified several principles of perceptual
organization, such as proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and
figure-ground segregation, which influence how we perceive and
interpret visual stimuli
...

Depth cues include binocular cues (such as retinal disparity and
convergence) and monocular cues (such as relative size, interposition,
texture gradient, and linear perspective)
...
Perceptual Constancies:


Size Constancy:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

10

o


Shape Constancy:
o



Size constancy refers to the perception of an object's size as constant,
even when its retinal image size changes due to changes in distance
...


Color Constancy:
o

Color constancy refers to the perception of an object's color as constant,
even when illumination conditions change
...
B
...
"Sensation and perception
...

Wolfe, J
...
, Kluender, K
...
, Levi, D
...
, Bartoshuk, L
...
, Herz, R
...
, &
Klatzky, R
...
(2015)
...
" Sinauer Associates
...


6
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Definition of Consciousness:



Consciousness refers to the state of being aware of and able to perceive one's
thoughts, sensations, emotions, and surroundings
...


2
...


Altered States of Consciousness:
o Altered states of consciousness refer to deviations from the normal
waking state of consciousness, which can occur due to various factors
such as sleep, meditation, hypnosis, psychoactive drugs, and
neurological conditions
...
Theories of Consciousness:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

11





Global Workspace Theory:
o According to the global workspace theory, consciousness arises from
the dynamic interaction of distributed neural networks in the brain,
with certain regions acting as a "global workspace" that integrates and
broadcasts information across the brain
...


Higher-Order Thought Theory:
o

Higher-order thought theory posits that c

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