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COURSE: PSYCHOLOGY
SCHOOL: HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DETAILED NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1
...
Definition of Psychology:




Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
...

Psychology encompasses various subfields, including clinical psychology,
cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and
more
...
Historical Roots:


Ancient Philosophical Influences:
o
o





Early Experimental Psychology:
o Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the formal beginning of
psychology as a scientific discipline
...

o Functionalism (James): Emphasized the adaptive functions of
behavior and mental processes
...


Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner):
o



Plato and Aristotle: Explored topics related to the mind, behavior,
and emotions
...


Behaviorists focused on observable behavior and the environmental
factors that shape it, rejecting the study of mental processes
...


3
...

Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory,
language, and problem-solving
...

Social Psychology: Focuses on how individuals think, feel, and behave in
social situations, exploring topics such as conformity, prejudice, and
interpersonal relationships
...


4
...

Correlational Method: Examines the relationship between variables without
manipulation, assessing the degree of association between them
...

Ethical Considerations: Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines,
including obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and debriefing
participants
...
Current Research and Applications:



Interdisciplinary Nature: Psychology intersects with various other fields,
including neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and economics
...


References:





Schacter, D
...
, Gilbert, D
...
, & Wegner, D
...
(2017)
...
"
Kalat, J
...
(2016)
...
"
Myers, D
...
(2014)
...
"
American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
1
...

o Plato: Emphasized the importance of reason and intellect in
understanding human behavior
...

Roman and Medieval Influence:
o

Psychological concepts were further developed during the Roman and
medieval periods, with scholars such as Augustine and Aquinas
discussing the nature of the mind and soul
...
Early Experimental Psychology:


Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920):
o
o



Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in
1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific
discipline
...


Edward Titchener (1867-1927):
o
o

A student of Wundt, Titchener further developed the ideas of
structuralism, emphasizing the systematic study of conscious
experience
...


3
...

Functionalism focused on understanding how mental processes serve
to help individuals adapt to their environment
...


4
...

Psychoanalysis revolutionized the understanding of human behavior
and influenced various fields, including psychiatry, literature, and art
...
Watson (1878-1958) and B
...
Skinner (1904-1990):
o
o
o

Behaviorism emerged as a reaction against introspection and the
subjective nature of early psychological approaches
...

Skinner further developed behaviorism, proposing the concept of
operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of consequences in
shaping behavior
...
Cognitive Revolution and Modern Perspectives:


Cognitive Psychology:
o
o



The cognitive revolution, which began in the 1950s, shifted the focus
of psychology back to the study of mental processes
...


Contemporary Perspectives:
o
o

Psychology today encompasses a wide range of perspectives, including
biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and
sociocultural approaches
...


References:




Schultz, D
...
, & Schultz, S
...
(2016)
...
"
Cengage Learning
...
J
...
"A history of modern psychology
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
1
...

Scientific Approach:
o



o



Psychology employs the scientific method, which involves systematic
observation, measurement, and analysis of data to draw conclusions
and make predictions
...


2
...

Experimental designs allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables
...


Random Assignment:
o

Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions
to minimize the influence of extraneous variables and ensure that
groups are equivalent at the outset of the study
...
Correlational Methods:


Correlation Coefficient:
o
o



Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulation
...


Limitations of Correlational Research:
o
o

Correlation does not imply causation; it only indicates that two
variables are related
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

5

4
...

Observational studies provide insights into naturally occurring
behavior but may be subject to observer bias and reactivity
...

Surveys allow researchers to collect data from large samples efficiently
but may be subject to response bias and wording effects
...
Ethical Considerations in Research:


Informed Consent:
o



Confidentiality:
o



Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before
they can participate in a study, ensuring that participants are aware of
the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits
...


Debriefing:
o

Researchers are obligated to provide participants with a debriefing
after the study, informing them about the study's purpose, addressing
any concerns or questions, and providing appropriate referrals for
follow-up if necessary
...
J
...
B
...
S
...
"Research
methods in psychology
...

Gravetter, F
...
, & Forzano, L
...
(2018)
...
" Cengage Learning
...


4
...
Introduction to Biological Psychology:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

6





Definition:
o Biological psychology, also known as biopsychology or neuroscience,
is the branch of psychology that explores the biological foundations of
behavior and mental processes
...


2
...


Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
o

Consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the CNS, transmitting
sensory information to the CNS and carrying motor commands from
the CNS to the muscles and glands
...
Neurons and Neurotransmission:


Neuron Structure:
o



Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system,
consisting of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon
...

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons that transmit
signals across synapses to other neurons, muscles, or glands
...
Brain Structure and Function:


Major Brain Structures:
o
o



The brain is divided into distinct regions, each with specialized
functions
...


Functional Brain Imaging:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

7

o

Techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
positron emission tomography (PET) allow researchers to visualize
brain activity during various tasks and states
...
Endocrine System and Hormones:


Endocrine Glands:
o
o



The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream
...


Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis:
o

The HPA axis is a key neuroendocrine system involved in the body's
response to stress, regulating the release of cortisol and other stress
hormones
...
Genetics and Behavior:


Behavioral Genetics:
o
o



Behavioral genetics examines the role of genes and heredity in shaping
behavior and individual differences
...


Gene-Environment Interactions:
o

Genes and the environment interact to influence behavior, with genetic
predispositions often interacting with environmental factors to produce
observable traits and behaviors
...
Brain Plasticity and Development:


Neuroplasticity:
o
o



The brain exhibits remarkable plasticity, with the ability to reorganize
and adapt in response to experience, learning, and injury
...


Developmental Trajectories:
o
o

Brain development follows a complex trajectory, with critical periods
during which specific neural circuits are formed and refined
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

8

References:





Kalat, J
...
(2016)
...
" Cengage Learning
...
R
...
"Physiology of behavior
...

Bear, M
...
, Connors, B
...
, & Paradiso, M
...
(2016)
...
" Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
...


5
...
Introduction to Sensation and Perception:




Definition:
o Sensation refers to the process by which sensory organs detect and
respond to sensory information from the environment, while
perception involves the interpretation and organization of sensory
information by the brain
...


2
...

Key structures include the retina, which contains photoreceptor cells
(rods and cones), and the visual cortex, which processes visual
information in the brain
...

Key structures include the cochlea, which contains hair cells that
transduce sound waves into neural signals, and the auditory cortex,
which processes auditory information in the brain
...

The gustatory system detects and processes chemical molecules in
food, allowing us to perceive different tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter,
umami)
...

Key structures include the skin, which contains sensory receptors such
as mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors, and the
somatosensory cortex, which processes somatosensory information in
the brain
...
Perceptual Processes:


Bottom-Up Processing:
o
o



Bottom-up processing involves the analysis of sensory information
from the environment, starting with basic features and building up to
complex perceptions
...


Top-Down Processing:
o
o

Top-down processing involves the use of prior knowledge,
expectations, and context to interpret and organize sensory information
...


4
...


Depth Perception:
o
o

Depth perception allows us to perceive the three-dimensional structure
of the world, including the distance and relative positions of objects
...


5
...


Shape constancy refers to the perception of an object's shape as
constant, even when its retinal image shape changes due to changes in
viewing angle
...


References:




Goldstein, E
...
(2018)
...
" Cengage Learning
...
M
...
R
...
M
...
M
...
S
...
L
...
"Sensation & perception
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
CONSCIOUSNESS
1
...

It is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various aspects of subjective
experience, including wakefulness, self-awareness, and the ability to
experience and reflect upon one's mental states
...
States of Consciousness:


Waking Consciousness:
o



Waking consciousness is the state of consciousness experienced during
wakefulness, characterized by alertness, awareness of the external
environment, and cognitive processing
...


3
...

Information Integration Theory:
o



Information integration theory proposes that consciousness emerges
from the integration of information processed by multiple specialized
brain regions, with a higher degree of integration corresponding to a
higher level of consciousness
...


4
...

NREM sleep consists of several stages characterized by progressively
deeper levels of sleep, while REM sleep is associated with vivid
dreaming and heightened brain activity
...


Dreaming:
o
o

Dreams occur predominantly during REM sleep and are characterized
by vivid sensory experiences, emotions, and narrative content
...


5
...


Hypnosis is a trance-like state characterized by heightened
suggestibility, focused attention, and a reduced awareness of the
external environment
...

Drugs can have diverse effects on consciousness, ranging from
stimulant effects (e
...
, caffeine, cocaine) to depressant effects (e
...
,
alcohol, opioids) to hallucinogenic effects (e
...
, LSD, psilocybin)
...
J
...
"Global workspace theory of consciousness: toward a
cognitive neuroscience of human experience
...

Tononi, G
...
"Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional
manifesto
...

Hobson, J
...
, Pace-Schott, E
...
, & Stickgold, R
...
"Dreaming and the
brain: Toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states
...

American Psychological Association (APA) website for recent research
articles and resources
...
LEARNING
1
...

Importance:
o

Learning plays a fundamental role in shaping behavior, cognition, and
emotional responses, allowing individuals to adapt to their
environment and acquire new knowledge and skills
...
Classical Conditioning:


Overview:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

13

o



Key Concepts:
o



Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a
stimulus that naturally elicits that response
...


Examples:
o

Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs demonstrated classical
conditioning, in which the sound of a bell (CS) became associated with
the presentation of food (UCS), leading to the dogs salivating (CR) in
response to the bell alone
...
Operant Conditioning:


Overview:
o



Key Concepts:
o



Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior is
strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it
...
negative (removal of a stimulus)
reinforcement/punishment
...


4
...


Modeling, vicarious reinforcement, vicarious punishment
...


5
...


Latent learning, insight learning, cognitive maps, observational
learning processes
...


6
...


Learning principles are used in various behavioral interventions,
including behavior modification programs, cognitive-behavioral
therapy (CBT), and applied behavior analysis (ABA)
...


References:



Domjan, M
...
"The principles of learning and behavior
...

Schultz, D
...
, & Schultz, S
...
(2016)
...
"
Cengage Learning
...


8
...
Introduction to Memory:




Definition:
o Memory is the cognitive process by which information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved over time
...


2
...
g
...

Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) and echoic memory (auditory
sensory memory) are two types of sensory memory
...
g
...
g
...

STM is thought to rely on temporary activation of neural circuits in the
prefrontal cortex
...

LTM is subdivided into declarative (explicit) memory (e
...
, facts,
events) and non-declarative (implicit) memory (e
...
, skills, habits)
...
Processes of Memory:


Encoding:
o
o

Encoding involves the processing of sensory information into a form
that can be stored in memory
...


PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

16



Storage:
o
o



Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time
...


Retrieval:
o
o

Retrieval involves the process of accessing and bringing stored
information into conscious awareness
...


4
...


The levels of processing model suggests that the depth of processing
during encoding determines the strength of the resulting memory trace,
with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better retention
...


5
...


Memory Errors:
o

Memory is not always accurate and can be subject to errors such as
misinformation effects (incorporation of misleading information into
memory), source monitoring errors (misattribution of the source of

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

17

information), and false memories (recollection of events that did not
occur)
...
Neurobiology of Memory:


Brain Structures Involved:
o



Neurotransmitters and Memory:
o



Memory involves complex interactions among multiple brain regions,
including the hippocampus (critical for forming new memories),
amygdala (involved in emotional memory), and prefrontal cortex
(important for working memory and executive functions)
...


Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):
o

LTP is a neural mechanism thought to underlie the strengthening of
synaptic connections in response to repeated stimulation, contributing
to the formation of long-term memories
...
(2012)
...
" Annual review of psychology, 63, 1-29
...
(2017)
...
" Journal of neurophysiology, 117(4), 1785-1796
...
L
...
C
...
"The critical role of retrieval practice
in long-term retention
...
COGNITION
1
...

Scope:
o

Cognition encompasses a wide range of processes, including
perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, decisionmaking, and reasoning
...
Attention:


Selective Attention:

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

18

o
o


Selective attention involves focusing cognitive resources on specific
stimuli while ignoring others
...


Divided Attention:
o

Divided attention refers to the ability to attend to multiple tasks
simultaneously, often resulting in reduced performance on each task
due to limited cognitive resources
...
Memory and Learning:


Encoding:
o
o



Storage:
o



Encoding involves the processing of sensory information into a form
that can be stored in memory
...


Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time,
involving processes such as sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory

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