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Introduction to Mass Communication – MCM 101
INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION
MCM101

VU

Table of Contents:
Page no
...

Early Mass Communication and Printing Technology ……………
...

Message – Root of Communication I …………
...

Effects of Communication ……………
...

Language in Communication ………………
...

Emergence of Print Media around the World …………………………
Telegraph does miracle in distance communication
...

Press Freedom, Laws and Ethics – New Debate Raging still Hard……
Industrialization of Print Processes
...

Advertising – Hand in Hand with Media ……
...

Recap
...
………………
Images in Mass Communication – Invention of Photography ………
Motion Pictures – A New Way in Mass Communication-I ……
...

Film Media in Subcontinent and Pakistan-I …………
...

Propaganda ………………………
...

Effects of Radio on Society ………………………
...

Effects of Television on Society ……………
...

Advertising beyond Print Media ………
...

Media Theories ………………………
...

Globalization of Media ………………………
...

Mass Media in Present Age ………………………
...

Recap ………………………
...
Even when formal languages were not available, people were
able to make each other understand their feelings and gestures to accomplish routine tasks
...
Since those times the communication has been shaping into different
forms and is supposed to be the key element in creation of different subjects and passing on experiences of
one generation onto the next
...

Although main focus here is the mass communication, it is pertinent to understand some basic elements,
fields and concepts of elementary communication before entering the very complex and widely exploited
world of mass communication
...
This is possible when you share your
feelings and ideas with others
...
It is understood that speech or utterances in the form of voice, were the initial stages of
communication which gradually developed into a defined form of language when all the people of a
community got to attach specific meanings to the voices and gestures
...
But once
writing was developed as one mean of communication there had been attempts to find some material to
write on, which was more sustainable and easy to take along in travel
...

Writing on paper by hand must have brought joy to people for sending their messages across to many
others, after that, the invention of printing overwhelmed efforts to give new dimensions to communication
...

Why need communication?
Survival
The foremost reason to communicate to others for the human beings in particular is their own
survival
...
The fact is that every next moment a person is dependent on others to survive
...

Co-operation
There is a very genuine instinct in all the living creatures to cooperate with each other to keep the
cycle of life running
...

Relationships
Feeling of keeping a range of relationship from an individual to family and tribe was strong from

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early days of human civilization
...
Communication was essential
to identify relations among people to accomplish different tasks
...
The task is done even today, though, with different techniques and in a rather complex
world of communication
...
This phenomenon
is more evident in the fields of conflict and to bring the enemy down
...

Social needs
Social needs grow with almost the same pace, human culture and civilization nurture
...
Communication is the common most thing which knit societies to fulfill their
desire to rise jointly
...
Information about roads, condition, may help you
change your traveling plan, for instance
...

Decision making
And not the least, in present day affairs communication goes long way in helping us in decision
making
...

Major Fields of Mass Communication
General Information
The main field of mass communication has been to inform people at large about things which are
in their immediate interest
...
Apart of specific
nature of news etc
...
To educate masses is also part of mass communication by exploiting all the means at hand to
address a distant and high concentration of individuals
...
This area has proved handy
to organized and corporate sectors, which have a defined purpose to achieve by keeping relations with
audience of their choice
...
So enormous has been the impact of advertising through means of mass
communication that a huge advertising industry has come up offering tens of thousands of jobs of different
nature to people across the world
...

Letters/ leaflets
A very primitive form of mass communication is found in centuries old approach to write letters
which were in the common interest of general public
...

Books

From writing letters to very many people on one subject, the next move was to write books on
matters of social life, philosophies, religion, health and scientific advancements
...
For instance, the central church in ROME had employed hundreds of clerics for the
purpose of writing copies of bible for taking the message of Christianity to its followers
...
Many a museums in the world are proud to have some hand-written copies of
religious or scientific works done centuries ago
...
The
revolutionary invention makes an interesting study:
The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text paper
...
Dutch Laurens Janszoon Coster has also been credited with this invention
...
It is believed that block printing originated in China, and the earliest known printed
text, the Diamond Sutra (a Buddhist scripture), was printed in China in 868 A
...

The use of movable type in printing was invented in 1041 AD by Bi Sheng in China
...

Nevertheless, movable type was never extensively used in China until the European style printing press was
introduced
...
Gutenberg is
also credited with the first use of an oil-based ink, and using "rag" paper introduced into Europe from
China by way of Muslims, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as early as 794
...
Without a doubt, the skills and
knowledge of metals that he learned as a craftsman were crucial to the later invention of the press
...
The
other candidate advanced is the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster
...

Previously, books were copied by scribes who wrote them out by hand
...
While it might take someone a year to hand copy a Bible, with the Gutenberg press it was possible
to create several hundred copies a year, with two or three people that could read, and a few people to
support the effort
...

Despite some resistance, Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly across Europe
...
It
has been theorized that this incredibly rapid expansion shows not only a higher level of industry (fueled by
the high-quality European paper mills that had been opening over the past century) than expected, but also
a significantly higher level of literacy than has often been estimated
...
This printing
press was run by a family of Jewish merchants who printed texts with the Hebrew script
...
The impact of printing is comparable to the
development of language, the invention of the alphabet, and the invention of the computer as far as its
effects on the society are concerned
...
They also led to the establishment of a community of scientists (previously scientists were
mostly isolated) that could easily communicate their discoveries, bringing on the scientific revolution
...

Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful
...
The printing process
ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents and indices
became common
...
This gradually raised the literacy level as well, revolutionizing education
...
With the older illuminated
manuscripts, the emphasis was on the images and the beauty of the page
...
In the sciences, the introduction of the printing press marked a
move from the medieval language of metaphors to the adoption of the scientific method
...
There were also more copies of each book available, so
that more people could discuss them
...
The spread of works also led to the creation of copies by other parties
than the original author, leading to the formulation of copyright laws
...
This development was
one of the keys to the creation of modern nations
...


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LESSON 03
SEVEN CENTURIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION – FROM PRINTING TO COMPUTER
As if printing process was an invention long been eagerly awaited to bolster communication at the
level of masses, it opened doors for creation and discoveries of many valuable means in the area of mass
transaction of messages which, as the time proved, had far reaching impression on the growth of societies,
cultures, habits, disputes and organizations which could help people live in a world close to each other
...

As the books circulation increased in the next hundred years, which also included works on different
scientific discoveries and sharing of newer physical ideas, it was the turn to publish things regularly
...

Newspapers/ magazines
It took almost two hundred years that the concept of regular publication appeared in the form of
newspapers
...

The first English daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, was founded by Samuel Buckley on 11 March 1702
...
In 1690, Public Occurrences in Boston
became the first newspaper published in America
...

1884 Otto Merganthaler invents the Linotype machine which casts type in full lines, using hot lead, a
quantum leap in newspaper publishing, and ushering in the era of "hot lead
...

This printing process was assumed by hundreds of regular publications of newspapers and magazines
around the world and remained in frequent use for almost a hundred year
...
A
...
The key was development of
a dictionary and a method to automate the hyphenation and justification of text in columns (tasks that took
up 40% of a manual operator's time)
...

Since the 1980s, many newspapers have been printed with three-color process photography and graphics
...

Circulation and Readership
United Nations' data from 1995 indicates that Japan is the country with most newspaper
readership
...
Germany's Bild, with a
circulation of 4
...

USA Today has daily circulation of approximately 2 million, making it the most widely distributed paper in
the U
...

Business side
Almost all newspapers make almost all their money from advertising
...
But some advertising
sales also market demographics
...
Some newspapers provide some or all of their content on the Internet,
either at no cost or for a fee
...
In other cases, extensive free archives are provided
...
Though in the middle of
19th century it sounded as talking-high, towards the end of the century things had started shaping as the idea
might be materialized
...

Marconi – transmits signals by radio waves
An Irish-Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi is commonly credited for doing that in 1895
...
Other countries have
some impressive evidence that some of their citizens transmitted radio signals before Marconi
...
” Once he
proved that wireless transmissions (radio to you and me) could work, Marconi patented the invention in
England and set up the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company
...
The first regular radio broadcast in the USA in 1920 brought presidential election returns
— in advance of the newspapers
...

But, something else was going on at the same time
...
That created a major problem
...

Some thought the solution was simply to use more power to drown out the competition
...
But soon regulations were enacted by countries where radio stations were set up by people
on their own
...

Broadcast Advertising
Then another element entered the picture — broadcast advertising
...
Y — and charged $50
for their effort
...
At that point it was discovered that
you could actually make money by promoting products on radio — and, of course, things have been the same
since then
...
In Great Britain this led to the establishment
of the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) in 1923
...

Later, the CBC (Canadian Broadcast System) was developed in Canada, patterned after the BBC
...
Although most counties of that era
also adopted government sponsored radio broadcasting, the BBC and CBC are among the few that were
able to insulate programming content from direct government influence
...
Today, a great many still do
...
Since corporate money and profit were involved (which largely finance
politics), the government suddenly started to get quite interested in doing something about the problem
...
S
...
Its
purpose was to organize the licensing of transmitters, including assigning radio station frequencies
...
S
...
The FCC's regulatory powers expanded to include telephone and telegraph — and
some years later, television
...

Championed in 1927, the invention of TV took hardly ten years to assume a regular shape as one strong
source of mass communication
...
In most
countries the TV stations were set up, regulations enacted and sets were sold in high number by the end of
forth decade of the century
...
Pakistan had its first TV station in Lahore in November 1964
...
Computers which were
introduced on limited scale in early 1960 for the purposes of communication and fast data processing
became in 1990s the major source of communication across the world
...

A building has its elements in brick, sand, cement, iron, wood, paints and sanitary fittings
...

Communication is a complex business and involves certain elements which join together to help a message
go across
...

Elements of communication
Sender
First and foremost is the person who sends a message
...
In fact a communication may not
take place if there is no sender
...
It all depends on the nature
of communication
...
Sender
comprising many is the case when a group of people shout together, or more than one person sing a song
as chorus
...
This encoded form is called
message
...

Channel
No sooner a message is created by a sender, it enters in the channel
...
In case of printed words
paper is the channel, in the matter of voice air may serve as a channel
...
Some times the channel itself becomes part of message and sometime
message is sent in a manner that a part of it serves as a channel
...
Receiver in this process is the element which is target of the message and actually
receives it
...
Again, it depends what the message is
...
In most cases an
interpreter is required to understand – decode – the message so that the purpose of communication is
served
...
Noise means part of meaning which is lost from the original
message
...

Feedback
Sending and receiving of message is a simultaneous process in which the receiver continuously
sends back its approval or disapproval after having interpreted the message
...
This element in the communication process is referred as feedback
...
If there is no feedback, the original
message may never shape accordingly which may distort the whole communication exercise
...
Change in the background factors
denoted as context, may change the meanings altogether
...

Communication Model
Communication experts have long been striving to arrange elements of communication into some
graphic arrangement so that all the complexities of communication may come in view in a glance
...

What is a Model?
 A model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract form
...

 Communication models are merely pictures; they’re even distorting pictures, because they stop or
freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transitive process into a static picture
...
They allow us to see one thing in terms of another
...
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were two different entities that jointly produced a
model known after their names
...
Although they were principally
concerned with communication technology, their model has become one which is frequently introduced to
students of human communication early in their study
...
As Shannon was researching in the field of
information theory, his model was initially very technology-oriented
...

The emphasis here is very much on the transmission and reception of information
...
This model is
often referred to as an 'information model’ of communication
...
It looks at communication as a one-way process
...
It is fine for discussing the transformation of
'information' but when we try to apply the model to communication, problems arise with the assumption
that meanings are somehow contained within the message
...
You'll also find
the terms transmitter and communicator used
...
That message has to be
formulated in some kind of code
...
The communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in
code, expressing the source's purpose in the form of a message
...
), muscles in the
hand and so on
...
So, for example, a disabled
person might not be able to control movement of their limbs and so find it difficult to encode the intended
non-verbal messages or they may communicate unintended messages
...
They can encode their
messages verbally using an artificial aid, but much of the non-verbal messages most of us send via pitch,
intonation, volume and so on cannot be encoded
...
In fact, it is Wilbur
Schramm's model of 1954 which places greater emphasis on the processes of encoding and decoding
...

The Message
The message of course is what communication is all about
...

Denis McQuail (1975) in his book Communication writes that the simplest way of regarding human
communication is 'to consider it as the sending from one person to another of meaningful messages'
...
In reality, though, you can only reasonably examine the
message within the context of all the other interlinked elements
...
The crucial question for
Communication Studies is: to what extent does the message received correspond to the message
transmitted? That's where all the other factors in the communication process come into play
...
Note that this is not a criticism of Shannon since meanings were simply not his concern:
Frequently the messages have meaning that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with
certain physical or conceptual entities
...

The Channel
The words channel and medium are often used interchangeably, if slightly inaccurately
...
It's obvious that you don't

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use the visual channel to communicate with the blind or the auditory channel with the deaf, but there are
more subtle considerations to be taken into account as well
...
e
...
Everyday examples of physical noise are:






A loud motorbike roaring down the road while you're trying to hold a conversation
...

Mist on the inside of the car windscreen
...

'Snow' on a TV set
...
In this technical sense, 'noise' is not necessarily
audible
...
However, it is possible for a message to be
distorted by channel overload
...
You may come across that at a party where you are holding a conversation amidst
lots of others going on around you or, perhaps, in a communication lesson where everyone has split into
small groups for discussion
...
Their
model is perhaps more accurately referred to as a model of information theory (rather than communication
theory)
...

Transfer of a mismatch between the encoding and decoding devices to the study of human communication
and you're looking at what is normally referred to as semantic noise That concept then leads us on to the
study of social class, cultural background, experience, attitudes, beliefs and a whole range of other factors
which can introduce noise into communication
...
It might not be an exaggeration to say
that the very essence of the study of human communication is to find ways of avoiding semantic noise
...
It may be related to people's knowledge level, their communication
skills, their experience, and their prejudices and so on
...

The Decoder
The notion of a decoder reminds us that it is quite possible for a person to have all the equipment
required to receive the messages you send (all five senses, any necessary technology and so on) and yet be
unable to decode your messages
...
This person
or persons can be called the receiver
...
If they are not, communication cannot occur
...

What that probably meant as far as he was concerned was that you need a telephone at one end and a
telephone at the other, not a telephone connected to a radio
...
A totally blind person has the mental
equipment to decode your gestures, but no system for receiving messages in the visual channel
...


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1949 – Shannon- Weaver’s Model of Communication

Feedback
Feedback
Feedback is a vital part of communication
...
More or less, these
expression would guide the teacher where and when to finish
...
In face-to-face communication, we get feedback in the visual
channel as well - head nods, smiles, frowns, changes in posture and orientation, gaze and so on
...
A computer's not likely to kill you, either
...
Feedback is coming at you through sight, hearing and touch -overdo it and it might come
through smell as well
...
In fact you apply more of your brain as
what you must be doing next rather than shaping your activity whether it’s being liked or not by the
machine
...

Lasswell Formula (1948)
Who?

Communicator

Control
Research

Says What?

In What
Channel?

To Whom?

With what
Effect?

Message

Channel

Receiver

Effect

Content
Research

Medium
Research

Audience
Research

Effects
Research

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The sociologist, Harold Lasswell, tells us that in studying communication we should consider the elements
in the graphic above
...
In fact, though, it is quite a useful model, whatever category of communication we are
studying
...

Harold Lasswell (1948) conceived of analyzing the mass media in five stages: “Who?” “Says what?” “In
which/what channel?” “To whom?” “With what effect?” In apparent elaboration on Lasswell and/or
Shannon and Weaver, George Gerbner (1956) extended the components to include the notions of
perception, reactions to a situation, and message context
...
His endeavor was more on the engineering side
where he was trying to put the elements of communication like the encoder and decoder along with channel
in some logical sequence
...
But it also showed way to communicators of
information in daily life how to manipulate different elements of communication graphically
...
In a mechanical way he was more interested in decoding a message
...
There is no decoder invented so far which could decode
meaning of a human message to the extent as it is meant by the source of the sender
...

Before we continue talking Schramm’s model lets have a break and see communication models from a
different angle:
Advantages of Models
Should give general perspective
A good model is useful, then, in providing both general perspective and particular vantage points
from which to ask questions and to interpret the raw stuff of observation
...

Should clarify complexity
Models also clarify the structure of complex events
...
Thus, the aim of a
model is not to ignore complexity or to explain it away, but rather to give it order and coherence
...
This may well be their most
important function
...
Ideally, any model, even when studied casually, should offer new insights and culminate in what
can only be described as an “Aha!” experience
...

Here are few points to keep in mind
...
Can lead to over simplifications
There is no denying that much of the work in designing communication models illustrates the
often-repeated charge that anything in human affairs which can be modeled is by definition too superficial
to be given serious consideration
...
By definition, and of necessity, models simplify
...
As Kaplan (1964) noted, “Science always simplifies; its aim is not to reproduce the reality in
all its complexity, but only to formulate what is essential for understanding, prediction, or control that a
model is simpler than the subject-matter being inquired into
...
Can lead to a confusion of the model between the behaviors it portrays
Mortensen: Critics also charge that models are readily confused with reality
...
Then the model begins to function as a
substitute for the event: in short, the map is taken literally
...
What has happened is a sophisticated
version of the general semanticist’s admonition that “the map is not the territory
...

“The proper answer lies in acquiring skill in the art of map reading
...
Premature Closure
The model designer may escape the risks of oversimplification and map reading and still fall prey to
dangers inherent in abstraction
...

The danger is that the model limits our awareness of unexplored possibilities of conceptualization
...
Building a model, in
short, may crystallize our thoughts at a stage when they are better left in solution, to allow new compounds
to precipitate
Having seen this discussion by a range of scholars, we continue to figure out more about the model we have
chosen for analysis
...
Background
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and
Weaver
...
Notice also the inclusion of an
“interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning
...
This model provided the additional notion of a “field of experience,” or the psychological frame of
reference; this refers to the type of orientation or attitudes that interacting people maintain toward each
other
...
Included Feedback
Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed
...

 Others are only moderately direct; you might squirm when a speaker drones on and on, wrinkle your
nose and scratch your head when a message is too abstract, or shift your body position when you
think it’s your turn to talk
...

Few examples from our daily life
 Politicians discover if they’re getting their message across by the number of votes cast
...

 Teachers measure their abilities to get the material across in a particular course by seeing how many
students sign up for it the next term
...
Included Context
A message may have different meanings, depending upon the specific context or setting
...
Culturally a message may have different meanings associated with it
depending upon the culture or society
...

Drawback
Schramm’s model, though less linear, still accounts for only bilateral communication between two
parties
...

The concepts of model carry some more points to students of communication
...
Uncertainty or entropy increases in exact
proportion to the number of messages from which the source has to choose
...
In the case of a two-headed coin, there can be neither any freedom of choice nor any
reduction in uncertainty so long, as the destination knows exactly what the outcome must be
...
In general, the
informative value of an item in a message decreases in exact proportion to the likelihood of its occurrence
...
Those
items in a message that add no new information are redundant
...
In human beings, the very act of repetition changes,
in some minute way, the meaning or the message and the larger social significance of the event
...
As a rule, no message can reach maximum efficiency unless it contains a balance between the
unexpected and the predictable, between what the receiver must have underscored to acquire understanding
and what can be deleted as extraneous
...
“Any additional signal that interferes with
the reception of information is noise
...
Interference
may result, for example, from background noise in the immediate surroundings, from noisy channels (a
crackling microphone), from the organization and semantic aspects of the message, or from psychological
interference with encoding and decoding
...
Even when the disturbance is substantial, the
strength of the signal or the rate of redundancy may be increased to restore efficiency
...
“The battle against
uncertainty depends upon the number of alternative possibilities the message eliminates
...
If you start by asking if it is located in the
first black square at the extreme left of the second row from the top and find the answer to be no, sixtythree possibilities remain-a high level of uncertainty
...
By
following the first strategy it could be necessary to ask up to sixty-three questions (inefficient indeed!); but
by consistently halving the remaining possibilities, you will obtain the right answer in no more than six tries
...

Source-Receiver relationship
Berlo's approach is rather different from what seems to be suggested by the more straightforward
transmission models in that he places great emphasis on dyadic communication, therefore stressing the role
of the relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication
process
...
We cannot
predict the success of the source from her skill level alone
...

 It affects our ability to encode messages which say what we intend
...
We
certainly all have experienced the frustration of not being able to find the 'right word' to express
what we want to say
...
It also has to have approximately the same
meaning for the receiver as it does for us
...

Types of communication
Broadly speaking, whole human communication could be classified into two distinct parts
...
This means that all the elements which come into action
in a given piece of communication are located within the self of an individual
...

All the process of meditation, thinking, monologue and even dreaming while asleep are all but examples of
intra communication
...
Since this part is experienced more due to its vastness, it is further classified in many
categories
...
Like all the players of a hockey team, class-fellows, doctors, teachers,
bureaucrats, politicians, economists etc
...
For instance, a company director is
passing on instructions to managers who would be guiding accordingly to field officers and the relevant
other field staff
...
Be it a corporate sector,
NGO, a political party, an educational institution, the communication process would strictly follow the
essentials of the organizational communication
...
The mass
communication involves use of technology for it is not possible to carry message to a very high number of
receivers with out the use of certain devices or techniques
...
That is why more research and
investment has gone into handling the mass communication
Forms of communication
In another way we can examine the communication process by dividing it into different forms of
exchanging messages
...
This way, all that
appears as text in books, magazines and newspapers is part of verbal communication
...

Likewise, all the words heard on radio, television, telephone or any other public address system are also part
of verbal communication
...

One amazing part of the verbal communication is the availability of events of significance in history
...
The spread of religions and sharing of most
scientific work is also due to the verbal communication over the centuries which recorded facts, sentiments
and event of common human interest
...
This also proves at what great scale the verbal communication has created job opportunities
...

Non verbal
Senses

Part of human communication involving other than written or spoken words is referred to as non
verbal communication
...

As a matter of fact about 90 per cent communication among human beings takes place through their senses
and the rest by the use of words as languages
...

For instance making a victory sign by politicians, army generals, sportspersons and leaders in general at the
time of defeating enemy is easily understood even by the illiterate
...

The traffic signals, red-cross mark and the symbol of dove are but few illustrations to make people around
understand what a message stands far
...
One may see a match on TV but an enthusiast commentator may relish the joy if your
favorite team is winning the game
...

Even the newspapers and magazines, which are more to bank on verbal communication, carry so much of
non verbal communication in the form of images, graphics and maps
...
In fact it has become rather impossible to find a newspaper and magazine, even
books, which do not use non verbal communication to explain various aspects of daily life
...
A slight change at the end from where a message is originating may lead to a yawning difference in
understanding it at the end of receiver
...
If you blow a horn of a motorcar it would sound the same if you try
it a hundred times
...
Listen to a recorded music and you would hear the same no matter how many time
you bother the machine to play it
...
You can’t repeat a message exactly the ways you have done
before for a range of variables occur in composing the message
...
When we examine this
property of message in the field of mass communication, the outcome suggest that the sender of a message
need to draw extraordinary measures to avoid any misunderstanding on part of receivers who may be in
millions in some given case
...

Here we will study nature and characteristics of message and the measures to be taken to avoid problems in
communication especially when a message is meant for cross cultures, religions, continents, nationalities and
casts etc
...
All we read in
newspapers, magazines and books as well as listen to fellow beings face to face or radio, TV, telephone etc
are clear examples of verbal messages
...
Nor a person
ever knows that whatever he or she is saying – by composing in idioms and words – is to be understood as
such by others
...
And if the sender and receiver of a message
belong to areas where two different languages are spoken, the meanings of message are deciphered
substantially and chances of misunderstanding, and misgiving, are high
...
For instance two people understand what is meant by the word ‘hot’
...
In normal language in which communication is
done such physics references are a remote possibility
...

Written Message Confusion
The written words offer more of this situation
...
It is even more difficult for the reader – receiver – to decode or
understand who has no experience of those feelings
...
It
is so difficult to make him or her feel the way writer has felt the experience of visiting the all awesome valley
even if he has chosen best words and articulation to describe the feelings
...
This makes the task of historians extremely
difficult who have to write for people centuries after when a sea of cultural changes would have taken place
only to alter the meanings of the same words used by the authors of the history book
...

Static Evaluation
Words themselves do not carry the same meanings through time and space
...

Similarly meanings of same words are changed at some distance
...

NON VERBAL MESSAGE
Many messages we come across in our daily life are non verbal – not in words by in gestures,
symbols, signs etc
...

Gestures
We usually adopt some patent gestures to communicate certain feelings
...
A baby brings certain gestures on his/her face to communicate
mother and others about the pain or pleasure it is feeling
...

Signs and Symbols
At times the non verbal communication – message, prove more to be understood beyond the
bounds of culture and creed
...
Blaring
of siren by an ambulance sends the same meaning to all
...

Cultural Conflict
Some cultures however differ in communicating the same meanings of common symbols
...
Seeing into the eyes may stand as a sign of truthfulness of a child, it may be deemed as an
offense
...
If we have to say sit down please, we also extend our hand as to support the verbal
communication
...
Speakers at a mass rally or
even on radio and television tend to change their voice level and stress words to give some particular
meaning to their utterances
...


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LESSON 08

MESSAGE – ROOT OF COMMUNICATION II
Message in Mass Communication – Misgivings, Conflicts, Ethics and Solutions
Message is the most sensitive area in communication
...
The inherent problem with message is that it can’t be
understood with hundred per cent purity and the sender is never in a position to ascertain at the time of
letting the message go across as what it may result into when interpreted by the receiver
...
Same set of words bring so different a meanings to different receivers that a conflict get on
deepening instead of moving towards solution
...
Exactly same set of words is said by
India
...
The US and all
other western powers, and even the people of the valley say the same
...
A message at the mass communication level is never
understood from the face value of the words, does not matter how smartly they are chosen, and so
misgivings are very likely to arise
...
The contents of a TV play may carry lines which may infuriate some and cause laughter for
others
...

Conflicts
The most difficult situation in composing a message for mass communication arises when the
subject matter is already caught in a conflict
...

At times – in given context, an observation in its most objective form causes a conflict
...
Things may be different if
the same observation is passed by a Pakistani commentator, obviously
...

Negative Message – Propaganda
Here a deliberate effort is seen on part of sender to distort facts and outlook of a situation to
further aggravate meanings (understanding) on a given subject and reap the benefit (resultant) by damaging
the enemy
...

Message as a Commercial Product
At times the sender attempts to use a message at mass communication scale to garner commercial
benefit
...
We will see in coming lectures more as how a message is molded in a manner to
fetch commercial gain
...

But it is not that conflict is a natural result of a message, though messages are generally under-understood
...

Solution
Since the gravity of misunderstood messages in communication is enormous, experts continue to
work on lines to diffuse the negativity in this part of communication
...
There is nothing like a standard language, but in practice one believes that use of polite and
decent words command more acceptability than harsh or intimidating words especially on matters of
disputes
...

Though the meaning still differ for different end-users of these statements, they generally remain safe to
avoid escalation of a problem
...
Fewer words are bound to cause fewer infringements and a
situation is saved from spilling over and generating more confusion or tension
...
This composition of the world is most embarrassing for students of
mass communication for it is next to impossible to address all the people belonging to different cultures
which give one meaning to the words said
...
But within one society the same problem may not exist
with same intensity
...
Religious and social values are very dear to people
...


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LESSON 09

EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication generally and mass communication in particular has a great deal to serve a diversity
of purposes human beings have always wished to achieve
...

Here we will see how the process of communication at different scales has helped people of different
societies to benefit from exchanging views (messages) on subjects of their interest
...

Discover
The immediate effect of communication is to discover something – from an individual to an idea to
physical exploration – as a consequence of generating a message
...
Nothing more has helped
them in this quest than the communication
...
Even to day when two people meet the communication starts from here; my
name is Sara and what is yours? Or, I live in Karachi and (where do) you (live)?
It is an instinct of human nature to discover matters around him or her
...

Relationship
Next to discovering, the most important effect of communication is to create relationship with
people and things around
...

Usually the effect of communication is that a new relationship is set or a fresh dimension, which may be
strengthening an existing relationship, is given
...
Nations have been seen striving to use the tool of
communication to bring this effect
...

The mass communication has always worked strongly to fetch this effect to societies living a distance apart
from each other
...
In many cases an effort by a small group of travelers had helped set
up long lasting relationships between people of two societies
...
It is due to communication from one part of the world to another that the suffering humanity is
saved from various disasters
...
Think of a situation when a house catches fire and a family is trapped inside
...

Hurricanes, excessive rains, earthquakes, epidemics and floods are but everyday occurring around the globe
but almost in every tragedy no sooner a communication is made, help starts pouring in from all around
...
An advice

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from a teacher may effect into activating students to work more seriously, or conduct research on a given
topic
...
For instance in the wake of soaring sugar prices if an appeal – a communication- is made from a
leader asking people to reduce use of the sweetener may work more than other administrative measures and
the price may start falling due to low demand
...

Relaxation
Among effects of communication one huge area is the relief which is effective when an exchange
of ideas or even receiving of messages is done in common life
...
Watching a humorous TV play
when one is tense does substantially well to change the mood and lessen the anxiety level
...

The effect of communication in relaxing people is also observed in meta-communication in which one is
involved with non living things as well
...

The exchange of message on scores of issues commonly shared by the people living in one society always
lead to organizing people in a better way
...
Likewise, sharing of economic knowledge by the people
of same society is the effect of common swapping of expertise which some people have gained by their
individual efforts
...
It is a matter of common
sense that the new approach of one village is going to benefit almost all the people who excel in any field of
life
...

Communication Effects in Time and Space
Effects of communication are not limit to present day activities but as a matter of fact they go
beyond the limits of time and space
...

Most scientific inventions, like radio, are the result of a multiple pieces of communication made by scientists
over a period of 150 years
...

The distance consideration has also been overcome by ever progressing process of communication
...
This brings great effect in the science world and makes the collective human progress more
integrated
...

Before we start to examine as what factors are responsible to generate this debate, it seems only logical that
we understand what culture is
...
This
includes their living habits, eating and cooking style, dressing up, language they speak in, social values and
traditions they observe along with the religion they follow
...

Enculturation
The process of passing on culture from one generation to the next is referred to as enculturation
...
The impact of enculturation is very strong
...
For instance a Pakistani settling
in UK will continue to practice its eating, living habit along with other cultural values
...
The two would enjoy
the enculturation to the utmost by communicating to each other matters pertaining to their life style
...
In this process one tends to learn the rules and norms of a culture different from one’s native
culture
...
It may take years even to those who command some expertise on
communication techniques for it is very difficult to break the shell of your own culture only to adopt
another
...
For instance if a Pakistani is
settling in America, he will have to acculturate himself by learning the living style of that part of the world –
at least in areas where it could be adopted
...
If one
resists acculturation, one is bound to face embarrassment in every day communication for every message
from him / her will be understood differently (wrongly) by fellow people there and vice versa
...
And not to be
seen as a cross country phenomenon, the cultural differences may exist among different shades of culture
within one society
...
There being dressing up, traditions at the time of child-birth, weddings and other major
events in life are very contrasting
...
A Sindhi life style is different
from Baluchi’s and Punjabi traditions on scores of matters are different from what are observed by
Pashtoons
...

Cultural Shock
This phenomenon in communication is very common around the world
...
One may not

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like to send his daughter to join dancing, or swimming classes at school in Pakistan, it is a must in certain
countries
...
But there is no such concept in the west
...

Principles of Intercultural Communication
Prepare yourself
The best to overcome communication gaps in multicultural society is to prepare yourself in advance
about the new culture you may face
...
By learning a good deal on these values, the process of
communication is eased out to a great extent
...
At ordinary people level this fear exists even more
...
Not that they feel superior, but the
fear that any miscommunication by way of words and gestures should not infuriate a local and put the
visitor in an embarrassing situation
...
Once
getting a positive feedback on your message would dispel the earlier fear and equip you with confidence for
more communication
...
Some body gestures which
stand for certain meaning to you due to enculturation may be entirely different in the other culture
...

Knowing some hard and fast values
As mentioned earlier, certain societies are strongly under influence of their centuries old traditions
...
Others may not find any
problem in using the left hand
...
For
Americans avoiding eye contact means disinterest
...

In America if some one says ‘come over and pay us a visit’, it amounts to only a friendly gesture and not a
formal invitation
...
Think of a situation when an American family says this to a family from a
different culture
...
It appears that the communication hurdles raging for the last many centuries
would be reduced as people see more of each other’s living style on the high number of TV channels now
available in most parts of the world
...

In time and space mostly it is the language comprising words which communicates to others
...
The religious
teachings and the scientific and philosophical works are also going down to generations through words
...

It is, however, a mystery to say whether the languages – over 4,000 in recognized form, are man made or
divine
...

Despite the fact that languages have been one of the strongest tools of communication, they also have
innate flaws which hamper communication
...

Polarization
For almost every language it is a common practice to describe things in extreme position
...

For instance a person is said to be good or bad
...
The fact is that the person under question is bad in some respect and good in some others
...

At the time of elections, you are asked to say yes or no
...
Fact is you do like some policies of a person you are
made to say no about and there may be some fault in the policies of a person (leader) you are made to say
yes
...
The fact is you like
the music and acting but not the direction and the script or story
...
The worst occurs when having said good, you cover an extra distance to justify it if ever
there is a debate on the matter, although your first observation has been polarized due to in-built
inadequacy of language
...
For instance Scots are labeled as stingy people
...

People of some tribe and clan are labeled as quarrelsome
...


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It is common in the third world countries to see the United Nation with suspicion and regard it as an
extension of the developed world only to twist arms of poor nation when needed
...

Static meanings
Sometimes some words are attached with a person and he/she continues to be known by the
meanings of those words
...
Now the fellow has gone to US and married and has turned very reasonable – as one can keep
changing overtime
...

You visit a foreign land only once in your life time and cheated by some natives
...
So harsh are the feelings and the words to give such meanings where as the fact is that
people, who might have cheated, are now changed
...

All this is because language does not offer any scientific approach to measures matters as done in physics or
chemistry or other natural sciences
...
For instance, people from the police department, customs
department, are seen with preconceived meaning
...
If a group of students resort to some hooliganism, people would
quickly remark it as a common thing about students
...
So on and so forth
...

Purpose of debate
As we undertake the debate on language and communication, the purpose is not to prove that
languages are worthless, but only to highlight areas where languages fall short of meaning and hence cause
some problem – sometimes very serious – in common communication
...
This perhaps is the only area which even a layman can easily
point out to and hold the mass media responsible for practicing and promoting what, by a common sense,
is far from reality
...

Media stereotypes are some time inevitable, especially in the advertising, entertainment and news industries,
which need as wide an audience as possible to quickly understand information
...

As we get close to understanding the mass communication in its various forms, it is pertinent to mark this
peculiar area which is widely in practice in news, views, scripts, TV/ radio shows and, honestly, in common
remarks on mass media
...
They are often used in a negative or prejudicial sense and are frequently used to justify certain
discriminatory behaviors
...

In common practice we assume a certain attitude by a group of people and start using our assumption as a
reality and thereafter all our analysis are based on our assumption
...

Global Phenomenon
The stereotyping in communication, which has its origin in printing process, is a global
phenomenon and hurting the mass media alike all over
...
One solution is to
make media people aware of it so that its usage may be reduced
...
But still Gojra stands distinguished in this matter
...
One of the players
belongs to Gojra and the other from little known town (in the sense of producing hockey players)
Nawabshah, for instance
...
To economize time and effort and, in his own way
to justify selection, the coach would not bet on one from Nawabshah
...

Who can risk against such strong stereotyping
...
Let’s see the common stereotype groups
based on:









Age
Race
Ethnicity
Gender
Nationality
Religious belief
Profession
Social class

Stereotypes can also be based on an individual's physical size, handicaps or other characteristic like the
blinds
...

Islamic (religious) Approach
Every individual is responsible for its individual deeds and not be seen as what cast, creed or tribe
he/she belongs to at the time of justice on dooms day, is only to defy stereotyping approach towards
human beings
...
It is a common sight watching plays in theater, or in comic
stories especially, to portray a group of people standing for certain characteristics
...
In early Urdu dramas, the role of baser nature characters was assigned to certain ethnic people, it
continued in TV plays for sometime till a strong voices in opposition were raised
...

Beauty Image in the Media
Images of female sell everything from food to cars
...
Some have even been known to faint on the set from lack of food
...

Why are standards of beauty being imposed on women? The roots, some analysts say, are economic
...
And it’s no accident that youth is increasingly promoted, along with thinness, as an
essential criterion of beauty
...
And, according to the industry, age is a disaster that needs to be dealt with
...
On the one hand, women who are insecure about their bodies are more likely to buy
beauty products, new clothes, and diet aids
...
S
...
On the other hand, research indicates that exposure to images of thin, young, air-brushed
female bodies is linked to depression, loss of self-esteem and the development of unhealthy eating habits in
women and girls
...
To quote one:
"We don’t need Afghan-style burquas to disappear as women
...
" - Robin Gerber, author and
motivational speaker
...
says that one out of
every four college-aged women uses unhealthy methods of weight control—including fasting, skipping
meals, excessive exercise, laxative abuse, and self-induced vomiting
...

Media activist Jean Kilbourne concludes, "Women are sold to the diet industry by the magazines we read
and the television programs we watch, almost all of which make us feel anxious about our weight
...
Researchers generating a computer model of a
woman with Barbie-doll proportions, for example, found that her back would be too weak to support the
weight of her upper body, and her body would be too narrow to contain more than half a liver and a few
centimeters of bowel
...

Still, the number of real life women and girls who seek a similarly underweight body is epidemic, and they
can suffer equally devastating health consequences, due to unhindered use of stereotyping in the mass
media
...
(This the media does
not say about men
...

Jean Kilbourne argues that the overwhelming presence of media images of painfully thin women means that
real women’s bodies have become invisible in the mass media
...
Women learn
to compare themselves to other women
...
"
This case study does not end here
...
It is here that students of mass communication are told to be aware of using terms which carry
stereotyping more carefully and in the sense that they may not be used at the cost of individuals in the
groups formed by the stereotyping-approach for its own convenience
...

Mankind has always been interested in knowing about the physical things around and the ideas on the
human life as structured by the intellectuals of the day
...

There is no trace available as how people from distant territories would exchange views and information by
the sixth century
...
But traveling was no easy
business and in the absence of maps and knowledge of geography and routes only few would dare to
explore the world and return safely back to their hometown
...

The availability of languages was only ample to accomplish the task of limited scale inter-personal
communication
...

A breakthrough was made by the invention of paper but it was still far from the concept of mass
communication
...
Traces are
available to say with some certainty that in the 7th century people had some idea about books
...

Four early Periods in the History of the Books
 7th to 13th Century: The age of religious "manuscript" book production
...

 13th to 15th Century: The secularization of book production
...
The difficulty with the spread of such knowledge was that production is still taking place via
pre-print - manuscript - methods
...

 The return of the crusaders in the 13th century, who bring with them texts
from
Byzantium
...

 15th to 16th Century: The first printed books
...

 16th to 17th Century: New information is put into books that have important consequences on
European life and society
...
Production of these
works took place in the monasteries scattered across Europe
...
Monks in the monasteries made copies of
the books in their care - both religious and secular manuscripts
...

During this time, the production of Bibles was the place where the
arts of the monastic scribes, and later lay artists, flowered
...

An illuminated manuscript is the Irish Book of Kells:
The image shown here is an eight-circle cross - one of the central
motifs of this manuscript, all of which focus on aspects of Christ's life and message
...

The most important thing about the manuscript books of this period is that they were objects of religious
veneration
...
Their creation was an act of religious devotion
...
They were
making the word of God manifest in the world
...
D
...

The detail of interlace in the Book of Durrow is more refined by the time the
illuminators get to the creation of the Book of Kells
...

In this detail from the Book of Kells, showing the heads of lions
and chalices spouting vines, we can more clearly see the
zoomorphic aspects of interlace
...
These images are schematic and symbolic
...

We think of modern books as being illustrated, but the illustration and photographs, the images, are usually
distinct from the text
...

Book of Durrow
First page of Saint Jerome's translation of the four gospels into Vulgate
...
There is
continuity between the words and the decoration, a continuity that suggests that the illuminated
religious manuscript is an attempt to convey the beauty of God's message to mankind
...
Primarily this comes about as a consequence of the inaccessibility of the monastic libraries
...
Given the amount of time and energy and financial resources that went
into their production, books were far too valuable to make available to the general public
...

This problem was compounded by the lack of a uniform cataloging system in the monasteries
...

The period between the 13th and 16th centuries saw the rise of a print-dominated society, one that moved
away from the Church's monopoly of information that existed during the manuscript book period
...
It was further fueled by the development of
new kinds of books in science
...
This is not to argue that print drove all those changes
...
There were
social and political and economic changes that made print important
...

The shift in consciousness that occurred with this period of history is the rise of the notion that reality
could be represented
...

The technology of the printing press, coupled with the surrounding changes in the political/economic
system, wrought changes in the ways in which Europe saw its place in the world
...
It is believed that block printing originated in China, and the earliest known printed
text, the Diamond Sutra (a Buddhist scripture, was printed in China in 868 A
...
)
The technique was also known in Europe, where it was mostly used to print Bibles
...
As a new block had to be carved for each page, printing different books was an incredibly time
consuming activity
...
The use of movable
type in printing was invented in 1041 AD by Bi Sheng in China
...
Since there are thousands of Chinese characters (Koreans
also used Chinese characters in literature), the benefit of the technique is not as apparent as with alphabetic
based languages
...
Nevertheless, movable type was never extensively used in China until the European style
printing press was introduced
...
Gutenberg is also credited with
the first use of an oil-based ink, and using "rag" paper introduced into Europe from China by way of
Muslims, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as early as 794
...
Without a doubt, the skills and knowledge of metals that
he learned as a craftsman were crucial to the later invention of the press
...
The
other candidate advanced is the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster
...

Next hundred years saw a change the world had perhaps not witnessed in the previous thousand years
...

Though it was not the way it appears today, the pioneer work in print as a medium to spread information
was started first by irregular pamphleteering but soon assumed a very formal form of regular publications
during which time tens of thousands of magazines, books, newspapers and newsletters change the
landscape in urban markets across the world
...
S
...

1733 ----- Peter Zenger is put in jail for New York Weekly content, but wins case against New York for
seditious libel
1798 ----- Alien and Sedition Acts forbid criticism of key government officials
...

1830s ---- Penny press introduces era of mass communication
1864 ----- Newspapers start using telegraph to transmit news
1848 ----- Associated Press founded
1800s ---- Linotype machines speed up typesetting by making possible the automatic casting of entire lines
of type
1890s ---- Period of yellow journalism
...

Print comes to South Asia
For at least one hundred years people in subcontinent remained unaware of the printing
technology
...

In the subcontinent the print media surfaced because of the foreign rulers
...
Since the influence of the English rulers was
more in the South India, most early papers also appeared in the southern cities before the print medium
came to western and northern parts
...
William Bolts, an exemployee of the British East India Company attempted to start the first newspaper in India in 1776
...

Bengal

The Hickey's Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser was started by James Augustus
Hickey in 1780 and is regarded as the first regular publication from the Indian soil
...
He dared even to
mount scurrilous attacks on the Governor-General, Warren Hastings', wife, which soon landed him in hot
waters
...
500 fine, which did not deter him
...
5000, which finally drove him to penury
...

Calcutta
B
...
The colonial establishment started the Calcutta Gazette
...
The Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusement, a monthly magazine made it four
weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta, now Kolkata
...
Richard Johnson, its founder, was a government printer
...

Tragically for the paper, it ceased publication when Boyd died within a year of its founding
...
The latter was an "unauthorised" publication, which led to the deportation of its founder
Humphreys
...

In 1878, The Hindu was founded, and played a vital role in promoting the cause of Indian independence
from the colonial yoke
...
Today this paper enjoys
the highest circulation in South India, and is among the top five nationally
...
Significantly, a year later a paper called the Courier started carrying advertisements in Gujarati
...
Like the Madras Courier, this new entity was recognized as the publication to carry "official
notifications and advertisements"
...
Bagchi divides the timeline
into three 'ages'
...

Urdu Press
In 1822 the Persian weekly Jam-e-Jahan Numa first time published in Urdu
...
During the earlier days of journalism
newspapers were either weeklies or biweeklies, none of them was a daily
...
With a circulation of only 350 it was the largest circulated newspaper
of that time
...

Urdu Guide was the first daily newspaper, which was started by Maulvi Kabeeruddin from Kolkata in 1858
...
As a first Urdu daily of
Bihar, Dini Bihar started in 1876 from Arah district
...
It was the first newspaper, which used the news from erstwhile news
agencies
...
At that time the circulation of Zameendar
was 30,000
...
Maulvi Saiful Haq started the daily Rahbar-e-Hind from Lahore in
1885
...

Maulana Muhammed Ali Jauhar started Naqueeb-e-Hamdard in 1912
...
In the
very same year Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started Al-Hilal
...
On March 20, 1919 Mahashai Krishn started Partap
...

Newspapers and movement for independence
Before the freedom following newspapers and magazines were started to support the freedom
struggle
...
Jawaharlal Nehru started Qaumi
Awaz from Lucknow in 1945
...
This time it is publishing only
from Delhi and is in very poor condition
...
Jamat-e-Islami Hind started weekly Dawat
...

Dawat has a particular readership and it is very popular among its readers due to its views on current issues
...
This time it is the famous Urdu weekly in India
...
This time it is the most popular Urdu daily of North India
publishing simultaneously from Delhi, Lucknow and Gorakhpur
...

Press in the US today
The print media include all newspapers, newsletters, booklets, pamphlets, magazines, and other
printed publications, especially those that sell advertising space as a means of raising revenue
...

Most print media, with the exception of magazines, are local, although there are some national newspapers
and trade publications that have become quite successful
...
Also included in print media
category are directories, church and school newspapers and yearbooks, and programs at theater
presentations and sporting events
...
The size kept on increasing as did many other sections of
specialization
...

Specialization
The media in print which earlier took the responsibility of spreading information only, has matured
over the decades and now providing healthy services in entertainment, education and welfare of mankind
...


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LESSON 15
TELEGRAPH DOES MIRACLE IN DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
TELEX AND TELEPHONE ENTHRALL PRINT COMMUNICATION
It was undoubtedly a historic day when scientist Samuel Morse on May 14, 1844 successfully established a
link between Baltimore and Washington DC by transmitting the first tele message ‘What hath God wrought’
on a device invented by him and which we know as telegraph today
...
There were no rails and motorcars
...
In rains and harsh weathers communication was blocked
...

How telegraph system came about?
Fires, smoke signals, and drums have been used since antiquity to transmit messages over long
distances
...
In 1793 Chappe
introduced in France a form of this system for the transmission of messages based on stations with towers
using a code to transmit signals by the position of crossed arms
...
In 1753 in Scotland Charles Morrison described a system
of 26 wires for transmitting the 26 letters of the alphabet
...
However, this was never developed as a practical system
...
At this time scientists had gained access to a steady, low-voltage source of electricity
...
In England Charles Wheatstone developed a telegraph with a five-needle
galvanometer that indicated the transmitted letters
...
In Germany Carl Steinheil developed a telegraph that printed
coded messages on a ribbon
...
The American painter Samuel Morse first became acquainted with an
electromagnet when it was shown to him by a young chemist he met on a transatlantic ship
...
He soon enlisted America's greatest scientist of the time, Joseph Henry, to develop ways to cause
an electromagnet to work at a distance
...
Despite this technical help, Morse is given
credit for the invention because he put together a practical system and got people to accept it
...
" The message
was transmitted by a telegraph key, a special switch that allows an electric current to be rapidly switched in
and out; it was printed in the dot-dash code on ribbons of paper
...
In 1862, 240,000 km (150,000 mi) of telegraph cable covered the
world, of which 77,000 km (48,000 mi) were in the United States and 24,000 km (15,000 mi) in Great
Britain
...


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All rapid long-distance communication within private and public sectors depended on the telegraph
throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century
...
The telegraph's military value was demonstrated during the Civil War (1861–1865) as a way to
control troop deployment and intelligence
...

Days of the Morse Code
Data was transmitted at about four to
six bits per second in the latter half of the
1800s, which was as fast as a human hand could
tap out Morse code
...
A metal bar on the receiver (left)
simply banged against another bar when the
current passed through, creating a clicking
sound
...
The new invention was telephone – a point to point messaging facility by
spoken words
...

Telephone in historic perspective
Throughout history, people have devised methods for communicating over long distances
...
These systems evolved
into optical telegraphy and by the early 1800s, electric telegraphy
...

A working electrical voice-transmission system was first demonstrated by Johann Philipp Reis in 1863
...
While Reis only used
his machine to demonstrate the nature of sound, other inventors tried to find more practical applications of
this technology
...
This invention proved to revolutionize the way people communicate throughout
the world
...
His breakthrough experiment occurred on June 2, 1875
...
When a reed stuck on Watson's transmitter an
intermittent current was converted to a continuous current
...

The original telephone design that Bell patented was much different than the phone we know today
...
The primary difference was that it could transmit
true sound
...
After two years, he created a magnetic telephone
which was the precursor to modern phones
...

The transmitter and receiver each contained a diaphragm, which is a metal disk
...
This motion was
transferred along the phone line to the receiver
...


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While the magnetic phone was an important breakthrough, it had significant drawbacks
...
Additionally, there was a time lapse in the
transmission which resulted in nearly incoherent conversations
...
The first phones made available to consumers used a
single microphone
...
Thomas
Edison introduced a model that had a moveable listening earpiece and stationary speaking tube
...
In 1878, the first manual telephone exchange was opened
...
Use of the telephone spread rapidly and in 1891, the first automatic
number calling mechanism was introduced
...
However, the transmission rates were not good and
it was difficult to hear
...
In 1912, the vacuum tube was adapted to the phone as an amplifier
...
In 1956, a submarine cable was laid across
the Atlantic to allow transatlantic telephone communication
...
In 1980, a fiber-optic system
was introduced, again revolutionizing the industry
...
If a person wishes to make a call, they pick up the handset
...
When the numbers are pressed on a touch-tone keypad, signals are sent down the phone
line to the routing station
...
The specific
number combination causes a signal to be sent to another phone causing it to ring
...

The mouthpiece acts as a microphone
...
This changes the distance between the plastic disk and another metal disk
...
The receiver on the other phone picks up this current
...
These magnets cause a metal diaphragm to vibrate
...
An amplifier in the receiver makes it easier to hear
...

The system of transmission presented describes what happens during a local call
...
Long distance calls are not always connected directly through
wires
...
For
cellular phones, the signal is sent to a cellular antenna
...

With the combination of telegraph and telephone systems, scientists worked to hand over print media
another great facility in the form of telex
Telex
By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation
...
These machines were
called "telex"
...
This "type A" telex routing functionally automated message routing
...
The network was
used to communicate within the government
...
5 bits per second, up to 25
telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel, making telex the least expensive
method of reliable long-distance communication
...

The first hundred years was the time when the print industry tried to comprehend the new situation and
shaped itself into a regular and formal sector but from the start of the 19th century, print media in most
countries started specializing in certain areas
...

The publishing industry, a synonym with print media, could be classified in general terms into three distinct
categories:
 Newspapers
 Magazines
 Books
In the following paragraphs we will see these three areas with more details
...

Although there have been claims by many to be decorated as first newspaper like Mixed News in China in
710, Notizie Scritte, a monthly newspaper for which readers pay a “gazetta”, or small coin by Venetian
government in 1556 etc, the World Association of Newspapers held “Relation”, as the first newspaper
published in France in 1605
...
The Relation
followed a list of news papers from all around the world
...

1631 ---- The Gazette, the first French newspaper, is founded
...

1645 ---- World’s oldest newspaper still in circulation, Post-och Inrikes Tidningar, is published in Sweden
1690 ---- Publick Occurrences is the first newspaper published in America when it appears in Boston
...
” The royal authority, wary of publications printed without its express consent, suppresses
the newspaper after only one issue
...

1798 ---- Alois Sedenfelder Invents Lithography
...

1803 ---- Australia’s military government publishes the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, the
country’s first newspaper
...

1812 ---- Friedrich Koenig invents the Steam Powered Cylinder Press
...
On the night of November 28, 1814, Walter took his pressmen away from their
hand presses with the excuse that he was expecting important news from the continent
...

1844 ---- Telegraph is invented
...

1900 ----Vladimir Lenin founds Iskra, in Leipzig, Germany
...


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1903 ---- Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord North cliffe) develops the first tabloid newspaper, the Daily Mirror,
in London
...
The first was with Lord
Minto, the new Viceroy of India, in 1905
...

Contents
General-interest newspapers are usually journals of current news
...

Some specific features a newspaper may include are:










weather news and forecasts
an advice column
critical reviews of movies, plays, restaurants, etc
...







International newspapers
Weekly newspapers
Sunday newspapers
National newspaper
Local newspaper

Circulation
A big issue with newspapers is always the size of their circulation
...
The mass circulation also gives a newspaper a
weigh in a number of local and national matters and its editorial staff enjoys a unique freedom in more than
one ways
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

10
...

Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the
cover that is later than the date it is actually published
...

Types of magazines
Art magazines
Business magazines
Music magazines
Computer magazines
Children's magazines
Health and fitness magazines
History magazines
Humor magazines
Inspirational magazines
Men's magazines
Women's magazines
Luxury magazines
News magazines
Online magazines
Pulp magazines
Pornographic magazines
Regional magazines
Satirical magazines
Teen magazines
Consumer magazines
Consumer magazines are aimed at the public and are usually available through retail outlets
...

Business magazines
Many business magazines are available only, or predominantly, on subscription
...
This practice, known as controlled circulation, is
intended to guarantee to advertisers that the readership is relevant to their needs
...
The main features of content in magazines mainly consist of the cover page features, reviews,
problem pages, interviews, advertisements, competitions and some form of gossip
...


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The main features of presentation of magazines are the cover pages, the layout and the design photographs
and illustrations use of colour, an insight of the actual magazine and visual narrative
...

Books

Though books existed before print technology, they were limited in number and their readership
was also confined to few
...
Each side of a sheet is called a page and a single sheet within
a book may be called a leaf
...
Now they are in the reach of
almost everyone and could cover any distance on the planet
...

When writing systems were invented in ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon—
stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets—was used for writing
...

Scroll
Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the
heart 
In Ancient Egypt, papyrus (a form of paper made by weaving the stems of
the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer like tool)
was used for writing maybe as early as from First Dynasty, but first
evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth
Dynasty (about 2400 BC)
...
Smaller monasteries had usually only some dozen
books, medium sized a couple hundred
...

Wood block printing
A 15th century incunabulum 
Notice the blind-tooled cover, cornerbosses and clasps for holding the book
shut
...
This
invention made books comparatively affordable (although still quite expensive
for most people) and more widely available
...

Paper
Though papermaking in Europe had begun around the 11th century, up until the beginning of 16th
century vellum and paper were produced congruent to one another, vellum being the more expensive and
durable option
...
As was the case with many medieval inventions, paper was first made in China, as
early as 200 B
...
, and reached Europe through Muslim territories
...


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Modern world
A collection of Penguin Books 
With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were
published in limited numbers and were quite valuable
...
One of the earliest references to
the use of bookmarks was in 1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher
Barker, presented Queen Elizabeth I with a fringed silk bookmark
...
The first detachable bookmarks
began appearing in the 1850's and were made from silk, embroidered
fabrics or leather
...

Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 1800s
...
Monotype and linotype presses were
introduced in the late 19th century
...

The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the
conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws
...

Collections of books
In the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also
libraries that could be accessible to general public
...

Celsus Library was built in 135 A
...
and could house around 12,000
scrolls
...

The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing
...


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LESSON 17
PRESS FREEDOM, LAWS AND ETHICS – NEW DEBATE RAGING STILL HARD
With the print media taking the world by storm and having enormous influence on cultures and
hitting the government policies hard, debate of its use and misuse was a natural phenomenon
...
It only printed one issue, however,
as it was shut down by colonial officials, possibly due to censorship and control issues
...

In the early part it were the governments which prevailed and successfully harassed the printers and the
publishers but as the print media got backing of society and organized itself, it started getting difficult for
the government to twist media arms at will
...
The laws were framed against which started press freedom
campaigns
...
The process of making laws against press, the struggle of press freedom along with
practicing media ethics continued and rages strong even today
...

Press laws
Press Laws are the laws concerning the licensing of books and the liberty of expression in all
products of the printing-press, especially newspapers
...

Before the invention of printing, the Church assumed the right to control the expression of all opinion
distasteful to her
...
In
1496 Pope Alexander VI began to be restrictive, and in 1501 he issued a bill against unlicensed printing,
which introduced the principle of censorship
...

Censorship
Censorship was either restrictive or corrective, i
...
, it interfered to restrict or prevent publication, or
it enforced penalties after publication
...

Under Elizabeth the Star Chamber assumed the right to confine printing to London, Oxford and
Cambridge, to limit the number of printers and presses, to prohibit all publications issued without proper
license, and to enter houses to search for unlicensed presses and publications
...

Many more countries are working towards introducing such laws, and many regions of countries with
national legislation have local laws - for example, all states of the US have access laws as well as the national
legislation
...


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In many countries there are vague constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information, but
usually these are unused unless specific legislation to support them
...
A
related concept is open meetings legislation, which allows the public access to government meetings, not
just to the records of them
...

A basic principle behind most freedom of information legislation is that the burden of proof falls on the
body asked for information, not the person asking for it
...

Laws in some countries- examples
In Australia, the Freedom of Information Act 1982 was passed at the federal level in 1982, applying
to all "ministers, departments and public authorities" of the Commonwealth
...
This is
enforced by the Information Commissioner of Canada
...
The purpose of the Privacy Act is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the
privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a federal government
institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information
...

Complaints for possible violations of the Act may be reported to the Privacy Commissioner of Canada
...
"Document" is defined broadly and it is assumed that all
documents, even if classified, may be subject to right of access unless it falls under one of the exceptions
...
A complaint against a refusal can be made
with the European Ombudsman or an appeal can be brought before the Court of First Instance
...
It came
into effect on 12 Oct 2005
...

Under this law all Government Bodies or Government funded agencies have to designate a Public
Information officer (PIO)
...
The law was inspired by previous legislations from selected states (among them Maharastra, Goa,

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Karnataka, Delhi etc) that allowed the right to information (to different degrees) to citizens about activities
of any State Government body
...
The law itself has
been hailed as a landmark in India's drive towards more openness and accountability
...

Johnson on July 4, 1966 and went into effect the following year
...

The Act applies only to federal agencies
...
Many combine this with Open Meetings
legislation, which requires government meetings to be held publicly
...
The law allows any citizen access to public records held by a public body of the federal government
including ministries, departments, boards, councils, courts and tribunals
...
The bodies must respond within 21 days
...
”
Press Council of Pakistan
The law states that the Code, which deal with issues as morality, plagiarism, fairness, accuracy,
privacy, sensationalism, confidentiality and privilege, will allow journalists to operate “in accordance with
the canons of decency, principles of professional conduct and precepts of freedom and responsibility, to
serve the public interest by ensuring an unobstructed flow of news and views to the people envisaging that
honesty, accuracy, objectivity and fairness shall be the guidelines for the press while serving the public
interest
...
This council is considered to be a euphemistic
connotation of censorship
...
However, the 21st day time frame for the release of information and
inclusion of courts and tribunals, among those require disclosing information mar its true spirit
...
Instead of applying to all records held by public bodies, the ordinance provides a,
restrictive list of public records subject to disclosure
...
"
Activities
Article 19 monitors threats to free expression around the globe, lobbies governments to adopt laws
that conform to international standards on freedom of expression; and drafts legal standards which
strengthen media, public broadcasting, free expression and access to government-held information
...

Article 19’s work is organized into five Regional Programmes – Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and
the Middle East – and a Law Programme
...

Article 19 is a founding member of the Freedom of Information Advocates (FOIA) Network, a global
forum that aims to support campaigning, advocacy and fundraising on access to information through the
exchange of information, ideas and strategies
...

Media Ethics
The issue of self censor has always been in view of the media people
...
The code is supposed to be practiced in letter
and spirit to ensure that the weapon of media is not proving detrimental for the society
...

This international declaration is proclaimed as a standard of professional conduct for journalists engaged in
gathering, transmitting, disseminating and commenting on news and information and in describing events
...
Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the journalist
...
In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all times defend the principles of freedom in the
honest collection and publication of news, and of the right of fair comment and criticism
...
The journalist shall report only in accordance with facts of which he/ she knows the origin
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

 Malicious misrepresentation
...

 Acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or suppression
...
Journalists worthy of that name shall deem in their duty to observe faithfully the principles stated
above
...


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LESSON 18

INDUSTRIALIZATION OF PRINT PROCESSES
Development of the printing press
The original method of printing was block printing, pressing sheets of paper into individually
carved wooden blocks also called xylography
...
D
...
Because of the
difficulties inherent in carving massive quantities of minute text for every block, and given the levels of
peasant illiteracy at the time, texts such as the "Pauper's Bibles" emphasized illustrations and used words
sparsely
...

Moveable clay and metal type are processes much more efficient than hand copying
...
D
...
Bi used clay type, which broke easily, but
eventually Goryeo (Korea) sponsored the production of metal type (a type foundry was established by the
Korean government in the early 15th century)
...

Movable type did spur, however, additional scholarly pursuits in China and facilitated more creative modes
of printing
...

Although probably unaware of the Chinese/Korean printing methods, Gutenberg refined the technique
with the first widespread use of movable type, where the characters are separate parts that are inserted to
make the text
...

Before inventing the printing press in 1440, Gutenberg had worked as a goldsmith
...

The claim that Gutenberg introduced or invented the printing press in Europe is not accepted by all
...

Impact of printing
Previously, books were copied mainly in monasteries, or (from the 13th century) in commercial
scriptoria, where scribes wrote them out by hand
...
While it might
take someone a year to hand copy a Bible, with the Gutenberg press it was possible to create several
hundred copies a year, with two or three people that could read, and a few people to support the effort
...
Books produced in
this period, between the first work of Johann Gutenberg and the year 1500, are collectively referred to as
incunabula
...
Not only
did the authorities contemplate making printing presses an industry requiring a license from the Catholic
Church (an idea rejected in the end), but as early as in the 15th century some nobles refused to have printed
books in their libraries to sully their valuable hand copied manuscripts
...


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Despite some resistance, Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly across Europe
...
It
has been theorized that this incredibly rapid expansion shows not only a higher level of industry (fueled by
the high-quality European paper mills that had been opening over the past century) than expected, but also
a significantly higher level of literacy than has often been estimated
...
This printing
press was run by a family of Jewish merchants who printed texts with the Hebrew script
...

Art of book printing and typeface
For years, book printing was considered a true art-form
...
In
Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art", and it has largely been lost, due to advances in
computer typesetting programs, which make it possible to get similar results with less human involvement
...
There is a yearly convention of
traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany
...
Koenig and
Bauer sold one of their first models to The Times in 1814 and went on to perfect the early model so that it
could print on both sides of a sheet at once
...
Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary press (invented in the United
States by Richard M
...
Mass production of printed
works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a
much faster pace
...
Movable type has been
credited as the single most important invention of the millennium
...
Based on the principle that oil and water do not mix,
an aluminum or plastic plate is coated with a photopolymer film that is exposed to light through a
photographic mask
...
When printing a page, the plate is
dampened, and the water adheres only to the unexposed, non-image areas, which repel the greasy ink that is
applied to the plate immediately thereafter
...

Lithography is less expensive than either letterpress or gravure printing and is a reasonable alternative,
particularly when an order calls for a short run
...
When used in combination with the lithographic
process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and water, the offset technique employs a flat image carrier
on which the image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a film of
water, keeping the nonprinting areas ink-free
...
g
...


The first lithographic offset printing press was created in England around 1875 and was designed for
printing on metal
...
About five years later, the cardboard
covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber, which is still the most commonly used material
...
Roughly at the same time, a German engineer by the name of Christopher Hermann invented a
similar machine
...
Rubel then noticed that the image on the back of the sheet was much sharper and
clearer than the direct litho image because the soft rubber was able to press the image onto the paper better
than the hard stone
...
Brothers Charles and Albert Harris independently observed this process at
about the same time and developed an offset press for the Harris Automatic Press Company soon after
...
It used a metal plate bent around a
cylinder at the top of the machine that pressed against ink and water rollers
...
The impression cylinder below pressed the
paper to the blanket in order to transfer the image to the sheet (see diagram)
...

During the 1950s, offset printing became the most popular form of commercial printing as improvements
were made in plates, inks and paper, maximizing the technique's superior production speed and plate
durability
...

Photo offset
The most common kind of offset printing is derived from photo offset process
...
Images from such negatives are then
transferred to photomechanical printing plates much the same way as photographs are developed
...
A
chemical reaction then occurs that allows an ink-receptive coating to be activated, thus transferring of the
image from the negative to the plate
...
However, modern digital "presses" (inkjet based) are getting
closer to the cost/benefit of offset for high quality work
...
The term "desktop publishing" was very popular when personal computers began to
proliferate in the 1980s
...
A key feature is its ability to flow text around graphic objects in a
variety of ways
...

Original text and graphics may be created in a desktop publishing program, but graphics tools especially are
often elementary
...
Then, the text and images are imported into the publishing program
...
For transfer to a commercial printer, documents are generally
saved in their native page layout format such as PageMaker and Quark Express or as PDF files
...


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LESSON 19

EFFECTS OF PRINT MEDIA ON SOCIETY
The rapid growth of print media in almost all the major parts of the world was bound to create
across-the-board changes in the life of people for it was after centuries that people were exposed to secular
ideas and the grip of the church in most parts of the Europe and America in manipulating social life started
losing ground
...

Language
The first to benefit from the printed words was the language itself
...
The printing of books and letters in high number standardized the languages and make them an
effective tool of communication by setting certain meanings of words, phrases, symbols and signs
...

Economic ideas
The breaking down of church’s control over written communication, and involving more people in
the print communication by the early newspapers and periodicals, money generation methods and
increasing trade became common topics
...

Knowledge of science and technology
The newspapers and manuals proved a great success in highlighting the work of scientists and new
ideas on technologies
...
The invention of steam engine in return gave boost to the print media by spreading the
printed words to far flung areas and thus encouraging people from the small towns to participate in debates
on science ideas and cause a great thrust in the growth of industries
...
But with the world of
civil rights spreading and voices were raised by sociologists
...
The
setting up of parliaments and reports of deliberations from inside the parliament has always an interest for
common people
...

Not only pieces of information or news are conveyed to readers, experts from almost all the major fields of
life – medicine, education, environment, economists and religious scholars – write in the print media
...

Wars
Media has stood firm at the times of war or invasion by the enemy
...

Sports and entertainment
Not that the media is always busy in serious and rather sober matters of education and politics, it
has done a great deal of entertainment by reporting articles and information about music, sports and other
recreational activities
...
It tells similarities in human living and
the differences so that people intending to travel due to business, health or educational purposes know in
advance about the new land
...

Historic perspective
The discovery and establishment of the printing of books with moveable type marks a paradigm
shift in the way information was transferred in Europe
...

Gutenberg's findings not only allowed a much broader audience to read Martin Luther's German translation
of Bible, it also helped spread Luther's other writings, greatly accelerating the pace of Protestant
Reformation
...
Also,
although early texts were printed in Latin, books were soon produced in common European vernacular,
leading to the decline of the Latin language
...

Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful
...
This allowed the exact
citing of references and producing the rule
...
For many works prior to the printing press,
the name of the author was entirely lost
...
The process of
reading was also changed, gradually changing from oral readings to silent, private reading
...

It can also be argued that printing changed the way Europeans thought
...
Early printed works emphasized
principally the text and the line of argument
...

In general, knowledge came closer to the hands of the people, since printed books could be sold for a
fraction of the cost of illuminated manuscripts
...
Within 50-60 years, the entire library of "classical" knowledge had been
printed on the new presses
...
Furthermore, as the books spread into the
hands of the people, Latin was gradually replaced by the national languages
...


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LESSON 20

ADVERTISING – HAND IN HAND WITH MEDIA
The area which benefited the most from the extraordinary growth of mass media from the
seventeenth century is advertising
...

Always present before the mass media, advertisements were, however, few and far between
...
Verbal announcements on the
beat of drums or distribution of hand-written bills were common mode of telling the people around about
something pertaining to them
...

At the time printing process introduced in the middle of the fifteenth century no one would have thought
that the new invention would lead to entirely a new industry which would create jobs for millions of people
around the world and generate enormous business
...
Fact is that the two areas – mass communication and advertising – are
essential for each other’s survival
...

Historical background
In the colonial period, advertisements were primarily signboards on inns, coffeehouses, and the
likes
...

The first newspaper to appear continuously, the Boston News-Letter, was established in 1704
...
Real estate advertisements, rewards for runaway apprentices, and notices of slaves
for sale were all common, as were announcements of sale of articles, wine, and cloth
...

Publisher Benjamin Franklin founded the Pennsylvania Gazette in 1728
...

Franklin is credited with introducing the use of large-point headings, using white space to separate the
advertisements from the text, and, after 1750, including illustrations, say some sort of cartoons etc
...
Advertisements provided
information about goods for sale, arrivals and departures of ships, and coach-schedules
...

In the 1860s, newspaper circulation increased, and magazine and periodical advertising began
...
Multicolumn display advertisements were designed; their first use was to call
attention to the transcontinental railroad bonds that were being sold to the public
...

Advertising in the backdrop of Industrialization
Since advertisements were assuming a very formal shape along with the newspapers and magazines,
the diffusion of steam power in the 1850s paved the way for a wave of technological change in the 1870s
and 1880s
...
Increased mechanization
generated increased fixed costs, creating an economic incentive to build large factories that could enjoy
economies of scale in production but which were dependent on mass demand
...
Telegraph wires allowed low-cost and fast nationwide transmission of
information
...
Where a housewife had once ordered a pound of generic baking powder, now she was encouraged
to insist on known quality by requesting only Royal Baking Powder
...
National firms included drawings of sprawling factories and factory
owners in their advertisements; the larger the factory and thus the more successful the firm, the higher
quality the merchandise could be presumed to be
...

The need to maintain demand became especially apparent during the 1893–1897 economic depression
...
Businesses needed methods to insulate themselves from
cyclical downturns in sales and production
...

Urbanization and commercials
In the U
...
only 20 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 1860, increasing to nearly 40
percent by 1900
...
It is observed that in most cases it is the population in big cities and towns which is
targeted by the advertisers
...

By 1900, advertising in newspapers was supplemented by advertising on streetcars, on billboards, and in
magazines
...

Ladies' Home Journal, established in 1883 by Cyrus H
...
Curtis, led the way
...
William Randolph Hearst began Cosmopolitan, Good
Housekeeping, and Harper's BAZAAR
...

Advertising Agencies
Advertising agents were middlemen in 1850
...

Beginning in about 1880, N
...
Ayer and Son of Philadelphia offered its customers an "open contract"
under which Ayer would be the company's sole advertising agent and, in exchange, would price advertising
space at cost plus a fixed-rate commission
...
Manufacturers were soon blocked from
buying advertising space without an agent
...
Curtis Publishing Company, publishers of Ladies' Home Journal, inaugurated the same
practice in 1901, and other magazine publishers soon followed suit
...

Until the 1890s, conceptualization and preparation of advertising copy were the responsibility of the firm
placing the advertisement
...
W
...


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Advertising agents—soon to be known as advertising agencies—took on their modern form: writing copy;
creating trademarks, logos, and slogans; and overseeing preparation of artwork
...
By 1910, advertising agencies were universally characterized by the presence of full-time copywriters
and artists
...

The Association crafted broadly defined industry standards
...
In 1926, President Calvin Coolidge addressed the Association's annual convention
...

Modern Advertising
Modern advertising—advertising with the goal of creating desire for a product where none
previously existed—began in the early twentieth century
...

In 1901, psychologist Walter Dill Scott, speaking on the psychology of advertising, addressed a gathering of
businessmen
...
Advertisers were initially skeptical of
Scott's thesis that psychological principles, especially the concept of suggestion, could be effectively applied
to advertising
...

Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and
social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing
communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial,
public interest issues and initiatives
...
To meet these requirements, many broadcast
stations in America air the bulk of their required Public Service Announcements during the late night or
early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time
commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers
...

Advertisement impact
An ongoing conflict thus arose in the early twentieth century between two types of advertising:
"reason-why" and "atmosphere" advertising
...
Atmosphere advertising
reflected psychology's influence; it emphasized visual imagery that evoked emotions
...

In 1909, the advertisers of Colgate toothpaste took the conflict directly to consumers, giving them the
opportunity to decide "Which Is the Better Ad?"—the one that offered a detailed explanation of the health

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advantages of Colgate toothpaste, or the one that used illustrations to associate the use of Colgate with a
happy family life
...
After 1910, most
advertising copy emphasized buyers' needs and desires rather than the product's objectively described
characteristics
...
Most advertisements sounded a
patriotic pitch as they sought to sell Liberty and Victory Bonds, raise money for the Red Cross, and more
...

Textbooks
A number of advertising textbooks appeared in the 1920s, authored by professors of psychology
whose academic affiliations were often with schools of business
...
A typical list would include appetite, love, sexual attraction,
vanity, and approval by others
...

Advertisers increasingly looked upon themselves as quite set apart from the consumers who saw their ads
...
Consumers were female
...
They saw their audience as
female, fickle, debased, emotional, possessing a natural inferiority complex, having inarticulate longings, low intelligence, and
bad taste, and being culturally backward
...

Criticism on advertisements
Advertising is often charged with creating a culture of consumerism in which people define
themselves by the goods they buy
...

Moreover, it was in this period that advertising first began emphasizing the ability of goods to meet
emotional needs and, more to the point, first began its efforts to create needs where none had previously
been felt
...
S
...
5
2
...
4
003
...
9
019
...
6
236
...
8
1
...
1
9
...
1
9
...
2

NOTE: The most recent media development, the Internet, was advertisement-free until the first banner advertisements were
sold in 1994
...
Internet advertising increases apace
...
The 1914 Federal Trade Commission Act empowered the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC) with the authority to regulate "unfair methods of competition
...
" The detrimental effects of billboards
on the countryside inspired the federal Highway Beautification Act in 1965, which regulated placement of
billboards near interstate highways
...
J
...
A voluntary ban on television advertising by the Distilled Spirits Council of the United
States was just one part of its Code of Good Practice regarding marketing and advertising, first adopted in
1934
...

Legislation was also done in almost all the European states, in Asia and Australia of similar nature to
regulate the business of advertising
...
In addition to
emphasizing Greek and Latin scholarship, humanists believed that each individual had significance within
society
...

Revival of ideas spread through print
The 14th century to the 16th century – during which time printing process was invented and which
led to pace up the print media communication - was a period of economic flux in Europe; the most
extensive changes took place in Italy
...
Power fell instead into the hands
of various popes
...
Europe itself slowly developed into groups of self-sufficient
compartments
...

Science

Beginning in the latter half of the 15th century, a humanist faith in classical scholarship led to the
search for ancient (hand-written) texts that would increase current scientific knowledge
...
Botany, zoology, magic and astrology were developed during the Renaissance as a result of the
study of ancient texts
...
Scientific thinkers such as Leonardo da
Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo and Johannes Kepler attempted to refine earlier thought on astronomy
...
The work done on old ideas kept
appearing in books printed in different countries
...
Galileo's
most famous invention was an accurate telescope through which he observed the heavens; he recorded his
findings in Siderius nuncius [starry messenger]
...
sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo
[dialogue concerning the two chief world systems] (1632), for which he was denounced by the pope,
resulted in his living under house arrest for the rest of his life
...
Kepler was the first astronomer to suggest that planetary orbits were
elliptical
...
These were the initial phase when the world was about to embark on mass communication through
the printed words
...
While the scholastics claimed a logical connection

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between word and thought, the humanists differentiated between physical utterance and intangible
meditation; they gave common usage priority over sets of logical rules
...
Joseph Webbe wrote textbooks that taught Latin
through reconstruction of the sentences of classical authors from individual phrases and clauses
...

Thomas Elyot wrote The Book Named the Governor, which suggested rules for effective statesmanship
...

The effect of humanism on English literature was wide and far-reaching
...
The poems and plays of Jonson often center on the
difference between virtue and vice; Jonson considers sincerity, honesty, self-discipline, and concern to be
chief virtues, while dissimulation, lying, or masking of identity is vicious behavior
...
In a play such as Shakespeare's Tempest, a main character (Prospero)
embodies a full range of human abilities: father, creator, ruler, magician, master, and scholar
...
g
...

In France Michel de Montaigne and François Rabelais were the most important proponents of humanist
thought
...
In “On the Education of Children,” he suggests a remaking of secondary
education according to classical models
...
Niccolò Machiavelli wrote Principe,
in which he memorably described the various shapes a ruler must assume in order to become an effective
leader, and Discorsi [the discourses], in which he studies Livy in a search for classical values
...

All what was done in the literature books was printed and books traveled from one point of the continent
to another and read widely because high number of printed version made it possible for more people to
participate in discussions on new ideas in natural and social sciences
...
As with many historical demarcations, historians of
science disagree about its boundaries, some seeing elements contributing to the revolution as early as the
14th century and finding its last stages in chemistry and biology in the 18th and 19th centuries
...

Emergence of the revolution
Since the time of Voltaire, some observers have considered that a revolutionary change in thought,
called in recent times a scientific revolution, took place around the year 1600; that is, that there were
dramatic and historically rapid changes in the ways in which scholars thought about the physical world and
studied it
...

Alexandre Koyré coined the term and definition of 'The Scientific Revolution' in 1939, which later
influenced the work of traditional historians A
...
D
...
To some extent, this arises from different

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conceptions of what the revolution was; some of the rancor and cross-purposes in such debates may arise
from lack of recognition of these fundamental differences
...
g
...

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body)
(1543), which discredited Galen's views
...
He also assembled the first human skeleton from cutting open cadavers
...

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) made extensive and more accurate naked eye observations of the planets
in the late 1500's which became the basic data for Kepler's studies
...

Galileo (1564-1642) improved the telescope and made several astonishing (for the time)
astronomical observations such as the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, which he
published in 1610
...

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion in 1609
...

René Descartes (1596-1650) pioneered deductive reasoning, publishing in 1637 Discourse on Method
...

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) built upon the work of Kepler and Galileo
...
He showed that an
inverse square law for gravity explained the elliptical orbits of the planets, and advanced the theory
of Universal Gravitation
...


Theoretical developments
In 1543 Copernicus' work on the heliocentric model of the solar system was published, in which he
tried to prove that the sun was the center of the universe
...
For almost two millennia, the geocentric model had been accepted by all but a few astronomers
...
It contradicted not only the virtually unquestioned Aristotelian philosophy,
but also common sense
...
Then, surely, if we were to drop a
stone from a high tower, the earth would rotate beneath it while it fell, thus causing the stone to land some
space away from the tower's bottom
...

It is no wonder, then, that although some astronomers used the Copernican system to calculate the
movement of the planets, only a handful actually accepted it as true theory
...
Kepler was a brilliant astronomer who, using the very
accurate observations of Tycho Brahe, realized that the planets move around the sun not in circular orbits,
but in elliptical ones
...
Galileo's main

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contributions to the acceptance of the heliocentric system were his mechanics and the observations he
made with his telescope, as well as his detailed presentation of the case for the system (which led to his
condemnation by the Inquisition)
...
His observations of the moons of Jupiter, the
phases of Venus, the spots on the sun, and mountains on the moon all helped to discredit the Aristotelian
philosophy and the Ptolemaic theory of the solar system
...

Both Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's mechanics culminated in the work of Isaac Newton
...

Not only astronomy and mechanics were greatly changed
...
Similar
developments could be seen in chemistry, biology and other sciences, although their full development into
modern science was delayed for a century or more
...
Even when formal languages were not available, people were
able to make each other understand their feelings and gestures to accomplish routine tasks
...
The hand-written books
continued to rule the world for centuries by taking views of writers to hundreds and thousands of people
across countries
...
Almost the same
had been the practice by other religions to convey their teachings to the masses by hand-written copies of
the holy inscriptions
...

Printing
Major breakthrough in mass communication occurred when printing process was invented
...
First invented in China in
1041, the printing press as we know it today was invented in the West by a German goldsmith, Johann
Gutenberg in the 1440s
...

 Block Printing
 Printing Press  Johannes Gottenberg, 15th century

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Communication Model
Communication experts have long been striving to arrange elements of communication into some
graphic arrangement so that all the complexities of communication may come in view in a glance
...

What is a Model?
 A model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract form
...

 Communication models are merely pictures; they’re even distorting pictures, because they stop or
freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transitive process into a static picture
...
They allow us to see one thing in terms of another
...
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were two different entities that jointly produced a
model known after their names
...
Although they were principally
concerned with communication technology, their model has become one which is frequently introduced to
students of human communication early in their study
...
Background
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and
Weaver
...
Notice also the inclusion of an
“interpreter” as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning
...
This model provided the additional notion of a “field of experience,” or the psychological frame of
reference; this refers to the type of orientation or attitudes that interacting people maintain toward each
other
...
Included Feedback
Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed
...


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

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Others are only moderately direct; you might squirm when a speaker drones on and on, wrinkle your
nose and scratch your head when a message is too abstract, or shift your body position when you
think it’s your turn to talk
...


Berlo's S-M-C-R Model (1960)
David Berlo's SMCR Model (1960) proposes that there are five elements within both the
source/encoder and the receiver/decoder which will affect fidelity
...

 Verbal
 Non verbal
Message – Root of Communication
Message in communication holds the key in determining what a piece of communication is all
about
...

Division
Messages are generally divided into two categories:
 Verbal
 Non verbal

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Verbal Message
A message composed in words – spoken or written – fall in this category
...

 Linguistic Barrier
 Standard Meaning’s Problem
 Written Message Confusion
 Static Evaluation
Non Verbal Message
Many messages we come across in our daily life are non verbal – not in words by in gestures,
symbols, signs etc
...

 Gestures
 Signs and Symbols
 Body Gestures (Language)
 Voice Accentuation
Composition of a Message
 Use of Standard language
 Brevity of a message
 Ethics
Effects of communication
 Discoveries
- Physical discoveries
...

 Social growth
 Relationship
 Stimulation
 Helping out others
 Relaxation
Communication and Culture
Before we start to examine as what factors are responsible to generate this debate, it seems only
logical that we understand what culture is
...
This
includes their living habits, eating and cooking style, dressing up, language they speak in, social values and
traditions they observe along with the religion they follow
...

Enculturation
The process of passing on culture from one generation to the next is referred to as enculturation
...


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Culture/ Cultural Shock
The anxiety and feelings felt when people have to operate within an entirely different culture or
social environment
...

 Labeling
...

 Indiscrimination
...

 Multiple meanings
...
They are often used in a negative or prejudicial sense and are frequently used to justify certain
discriminatory behaviors
...

In common practice we assume a certain attitude by a group of people and start using our assumption as a
reality and thereafter all our analysis are based on our assumption
...

Stereotype Groups
 Age
 Race
 Ethnicity
 Religious beliefs
 Gender
 Social class
Propaganda
Propaganda means to hammer that side of an issue which only suits one party
...
There are conflicting ideas as who brought out the first newspaper in the world and how long
it had sustained but according to the World Association of Newspapers, the first titled English language
private newspaper, The Corrant, was first published in London in 1621
...

In 1631 The Gazette, the first French newspaper was founded
...
In 1803, just 15 years after the first British penal colony
was established, Australia's military government published the Sydney Gazette and the New South Wales
Advertiser, Australia's first newspapers
...
Bolts had to beat a retreat under the disapproving gaze of the Court of
Directors of the Company
...

Calcutta
 B
...

 Bengal Journal
...

Madras

The Madras Courier was started in 1785 in the southern stronghold of Madras
...

Madras got its second newspaper when, in 1791, Hugh Boyd, who was the editor of the Courier quit and
founded the Hurkaru
...

On January 14, 1850 Munshi Harsukh Rai started weekly Kohinoor
...

Urdu Guide was the first daily newspaper, which was started by Maulvi Kabeeruddin from Kolkata in 1858
...

Zameendar, which was the best newspaper of that time, was started in 1903 from Lahore
...

Telegraph
 Samuel F
...
Morse
 May 14, 1844
 Morse Code
 Message sent from Baltimore to Washington D
...

 Message was: “What hath God wrought?”
Telephone
 Alexander Graham Bell
 March 7, 1876
Bell's interest in telephony was primarily derived from his background in vocal physiology and his speech
instruction to the deaf
...
He and his assistant,
Thomas Watson, were working on a harmonic telegraph
...
Bell was able to hear the sound on his receiver
confirming his belief that sound could be transmitted and reconverted through an electric wire by using a
continuous electric current
...
In a
real sense, it was just a modified version of a telegraph
...
Bell continued to improve upon his design
...
This design consisted of a transmitter, receiver, and a magnet
...
During a phone call, the

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vibrations of the caller's voice caused the diaphragm in the transmitter to move
...
The receiving diaphragm began vibrating thereby producing
sound and completing the call
...
Large telegraphy providers
began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialing to connect teletypes
...
Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialing, and then sent baud dots
code
...

The first wide-coverage telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s
...
At the then-blinding rate of 45
...

Press laws
Press Laws are the laws concerning the licensing of books and the liberty of expression in all
products of the printing-press, especially newspapers
...

Before the invention of printing, the Church assumed the right to control the expression of all opinion
distasteful to her
...
In
1496 Pope Alexander VI began to be restrictive, and in 1501 he issued a bill against unlicensed printing,
which introduced the principle of censorship
...

Censorship
Censorship was either restrictive or corrective, i
...
, it interfered to restrict or prevent publication, or
it enforced penalties after publication
...

Under Elizabeth the Star Chamber assumed the right to confine printing to London, Oxford and
Cambridge, to limit the number of printers and presses, to prohibit all publications issued without proper
license, and to enter houses to search for unlicensed presses and publications
...
”
The Council will be an independent corporate entity, with its own staff, secretariat and budget and will be
financed through an annual governmental grant-in-aid as well as other grants and donations and such fees
as it may levy from registered newspapers and news agencies
...

Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002
The freedom of information ordinance introduced in 2002 contains some positive features
acknowledging citizens right to know
...
Large
amounts of information are also not subject to disclosure under the ordinance, largely undermining the

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public’s right to know
...

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, states:
"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference
and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers
...
In addition to
emphasizing Greek and Latin scholarship, humanists believed that each individual had significance within
society
...

Revival of ideas spread through print
The 14th century to the 16th century – during which time printing process was invented and which
led to pace up the print media communication - was a period of economic flux in Europe; the most
extensive changes took place in Italy
...
Power fell instead into the hands
of various popes
...
Europe itself slowly developed into groups of self-sufficient
compartments
...

New Ideas and People who emerged:
 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) published Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres in 1543
argued for the heliocentric theory of the solar system
...
He found that the circulation of blood resolved from
pumping of the heart
...

 William Gilbert (1544-1603) published On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies and That Great Magnet the
Earth in 1600
...

 Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626), whose greatest scientific experiment amounted to stuffing snow
into a dead chicken, nevertheless penned inductive reasoning, proceeding from observation and
experimentation
...
He developed the laws for falling bodies based on pioneering quantitative
experiments which he analyzed mathematically
...


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William Harvey (1578-1657) demonstrated that blood circulates via dissections and various other
experimental techniques
...

Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made
extensive observations that he published in about 1660 began to open up the micro-world of
biology
...
His development of the
calculus opened up new applications of the methods of mathematics to science
...
Newton believed that scientific theory should be coupled with rigid
experimentation
...

In the initial phase of print communication, publications were not very regular not only in the sense of on
time the next day, or on a particular day in case of periodicals, but also in the sense of their layouts, design,
number of pages and the content
...
But in the meantime the world of
advertising and some modernization in the printing process had been introduced
...

The media management means to make sure that a publication meets its deadlines, keeps contents, generate
revenue and maintains its technical wing to be there in the hands of end-readers well in time
...
Colleges and universities run special courses on media management
and specialists are engaged to seek advice on matters to manage and maintain a publication
...
A large circulation daily has to follow a
service structure to make sure that the people working in the editorial department are in a well defined
hierarchy
...

The other part of the editorial staff is supposed to mange the newsroom where ultimately every matter is
taken care of that is to appear the next day
...
All the staff is headed by an editor who is responsible for what report or comment
has appeared in the paper
...
The writer has to take into account the policy of the paper, laws
and regulations and the ethics which are generally observed in a society
...
The publications have to see closure for adhering to
their policy if it is against the government
...
The revenue it generates and the money it
spends
...
The advertising

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department keeps making campaign to generate revenue
...

Two color ads and multicolor ads are charged differently
...
In big newspapers cost difference between
an ordinary ad and the one at a particular spot is very high – to the extent of 400 per cent
...

Normally newspapers charge ad cost in advance
...

The circulation department also meant to undertake exercises to increase the circulation of the publication
...
It is always a
pride for a publication to note its high circulation
...
This department also helps
the company to maintain its audit reports
...
All matters pertaining to printing press are referred to as press matters
...

It is the press department which tells the directors (owners) about the newsprint (paper) requirement
...
The newsprint has to be bought in enough quantity well in advance
...
And from filming to plate making and the inks used to print the final plates
...
This department usually operates in the night no matter it is cold, hot or raining
...

The management of print media is done more efficiently if the managers are fully acquainted with the
working of all the three major sections of the publication
...


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LESSON 24
IMAGES IN MASS COMMUNICATION – INVENTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY
For almost four hundred years since the invention of printing press in 1443, the print media was
relying on words for the purpose of mass communication
...

Since the print media was divided into a number of languages even within the European continent, the
written communication was not fully serving the purpose of news media and the analysis on events of
significance reported in newspapers, magazines or even books produced in one language
...

Though the desire was strong to communicate more effectively through the print media, there were no
photographs as the world did not know about photography till the middle of 19th century
...

What is photography?
Method of recording permanent images by light on to a chemically sensitive material is called
photography
...

In 1826 or 1827, a Frenchman, Joseph Niepce, had secured the world's earliest surviving photograph (now
lying at the University of Texas at Austin) on a plate sensitized with bitumen and exposed for eight hours in
a camera
...
M
...

Portrait photography
The introduction in 1860 of portrait photographs mounted on cards--, or visiting-card style upped
to a larger cabinet size in 1866--ended the reign of daguerreotype photography
...
As the name Brady dominated the daguerreotype era, it was Brady carte de visite of president
Abraham Lincoln, widely reproduced and distributed in the 1860 presidential campaign, that Lincoln later said helped elect
him president
...
The inception of these visual documents of personal and public history engendered vast changes in
people's perception of history, of time, and of themselves
...
The everywhere presence of photographic
machinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable for observation
...

To fulfill the mounting and incessant demand for more images, photographers spread out to every corner
of the world, recording all the natural and manufactured phenomena they could find
...
These were in three
main forms: the family album, which contained cabinet portraits and; scrapbooks containing large prints
of views from various parts of the world; and boxes of stereoscope cards, which in combination with the
popular stereo viewer created an effective illusion of three-dimensionality
...
J
...
Muybridge's major work, Animal Locomotion (1887), remains a basic source for artists
and scientists alike
...

Photographs come to news media
The introduction of the halftone process in 1881 made possible the accurate reproduction of
photographs in books and newspapers
...

George Eastman's introduction in 1888 of roll film and the simple Kodak box camera provided everyone
with the means of making photographs for themselves
...

The power of the photograph as record was demonstrated in the 19th century when William H
...
S
...

In the early 20th century photographers and journalists were beginning to use the medium to inform the
public on crucial issues in order to generate social change
...
The photojournalist sought to
build, strengthen, or change public opinion by means of novel, often shocking images
...
Color film for transparencies (slides) was introduced in 1935 and color negative
film in 1942
...
All of these technological advances
granted the photojournalist enormous and unprecedented versatility
...
At the same time a steady stream of
convulsive national and international events provided a wealth of material for the extended photo-essay, the
documentarian's natural mode
...
Under the leadership of Roy Stryker, the
photographic division of the Farm Security Administration (FSA) began to make an archive of images of
America during this epoch of crisis
...

With the coming of World War II photographers, including Margaret Bourke-White, Edward Steichen, W
...
The war was a stimulus to
photography in other ways as well
...


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Modern Photography
After the war museums and art schools opened their doors to photography, a trend that has
continued to the present
...
As exemplified by Robert Frank in his highly influential
book-length photo-essay, The Americans (1959), the new documentarians commenced probing what has
been called the “social landscape,” often mirroring in their images the anxiety and alienation of urban life
...
H
...

Many young photographers felt little inhibition against handwork, collage, multiple images, and other forms
that were anathema to practitioners of the straight aesthetic
...
Many painters and printmakers, including Andy
Warhol, Robert Rauschenberg, and David Hockney have blended photography with other modes of
expression, including computer imaging in mixed media compositions at both large and small scale
...

Other Aspects of Photography
In the contemporary world the practical applications of the photographic medium are numerous: it
is an important tool in education, medicine, commerce, criminology, and the military
...
New techniques such as holography, a means of creating a three-dimensional image in space,
continue to expand the medium's technological and creative horizons
...

Digital Technology
By the end of the 20th century digital imaging and processing and computer-based techniques had
made it possible to manipulate images in many ways, creating revolutionary changes in photography
...
Instead of light
passing through a lens and striking emulsion on film, digital photography uses sensors and color filters
...
Each filter
allows only one color (red, green, or blue) to pass through to the pixel beneath it
...
Since silicon absorbs different colors at
different depths, each layer allows a different color to pass through
...
In both techniques the photosensitive material converts images into a series of numbers that
are then translated back into tonal values and printed
...
Some digital cameras record directly onto computer disks or into a computer, where the images can
be manipulated at will
...
The quality of images improved in the last quarter when halftone technique was
discovered
...
Some of the camera work, as
discussed in the last lecture, was so strong that it had forced the American government to undertake
legislation to help people living in slums
...
The trend continues
to-date and special fashion magazines are a common sight at most bookstalls
...
Why not to create a sense of motion by using a series of
images
...
At this stage of history no one knew
what miracle in mass communication was in waiting
...

Start in unbelievable fashion
It started with a $25,000 bet, in 1877 that was a lot of money
...
Some people argued
that a galloping horse had all four feet off of the ground at the same time at some point;
others said this would be impossible
...
Or, maybe,
depending on your belief, just fast enough that you could see what you wanted to
...

In an effort to settle the issue once and for all an experiment was set up in which a rapid sequence of
photos was taken of a running horse
...
But, in doing this
experiment they found out something else — something that becomes obvious from the illustrations below
...
That discovery
would soon make that $25,000 look like pocket change
...
1 second intervals to create the
appearance of continuous motion
...

 The phi phenomenon that explains why, when you view a series of slightly different still photos or
images in rapid succession, an illusion of movement is created in the transition between the images
...


In actual fact, there is nothing moving in motion pictures
...

Note in the illustration on the left that an illusion of motion is created, even when successive pictures are
presented at a relatively slow rate
...
This high speed makes the transition between images virtually invisible
...

Early days
Experiments in photographing movement had been made in both the United States and Europe
during the latter half of the 19th century with, at first, no exploitation of its technical and commercial
possibilities
...
D
...
The first motion pictures made with a single camera were by
E
...
Marey, a French physician, in the 1880s, in the course of his study of motion
...

Marketed in 1893, the Kinetoscope gained popularity in penny arcades, and experimentation turned to ways
in which moving images might be shown to more than one person at a time
...
In the United States, similar
machines, notably the Pantopticon and the Vitascope, were developed and first used in New York City in
1896
...
The first movie theater, complete with luxurious accessories and a piano, was built in
Pittsburgh in 1905
...
An
industry developed to produce new material and the medium's potential for expressive ends began to assert
itself
...
Edison had claimed the patents for
many of the technical elements involved in filmmaking and, in 1909, formed the Motion Picture Patents
Company, an attempt at monopoly that worked to keep unlicensed companies out of production and
distribution
...
After 1913 Hollywood, Calif
...
At first, films were sold outright to exhibitors; later they were distributed on a
rental basis through film exchanges
...
actress Florence Lawrence, first known as The Vitagraph Girl
...
Films had slowly been edging past the 20 minute
mark, but the drive to feature-length works began with the Italian “spectacle” film, of which Quo Vadis
(1913), running nine reels or about two hours, was the most influential
...
W
...
Stuart Blackton, and Mack Sennett,
became known to audiences as purveyors of certain kinds, or “genres,” of subject matter
...
Hart, Greta Garbo, John Gilbert, Claudette Colbert, Rudolph Valentino,

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Janet Gaynor, Ronald Colman, Clara Bow, Gloria Swanson, Lon Chaney, and Will Rogers
...
At first, simple actions were filmed, then everyday scenes and, pivotally,
gag films, in which a practical joke is staged as a simple tableau
...

The medium's potential as a storytelling mechanism was realized very early in its history
...
His Cinderella (1900) and A Trip to the Moon (1902) were major
innovative accomplishments
...
Porter demonstrated that action need not be staged
for cinema screen as for theater and early realized that scenes photographed in widely separate locales could
be cut, or edited, together yet still not be confusing to the audience
...

Business aspect
As business increased, the demand for product was met by many new companies incorporated to
create the supply
...
Out
of these efforts developed the star system, the establishment of physical plants (studios) where the films
would be made, and the organization of the filmmaking process into interlocking crafts
...

The year 1926 brought experiments in sound effects and music, and in 1927 spoken dialogue was
successfully introduced in The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson
...
With the talkies new directors achieved prominence—King Vidor, Joseph Von Sternberg,
Rouben Mamoulian, Frank Capra, and John Ford
...
Among the most celebrated stars of the new era were Clark Gable, Jean
Harlow, Marlene Dietrich, Mae West, W
...
Fields, and the Marx Brothers
...
The prize, a
figurine of a man grasping a star, was later dubbed Oscar
...
The Academy Awards also offered the bonus of gathering
many stars in one place and thus attracted immediate and widespread attention
...

From the 1930s until the early 1950s, the studios sponsored a host of talented actors, foremost among
whom were Ingrid Bergman, Joan Crawford, Bette Davis, Katharine Hepburn, Charles Laughton, Barbara
Stanwyck, William Powell, Spencer Tracy, Humphrey Bogart, Leslie Howard, Gary Cooper, James Stewart,
Cary Grant, Irene Dunne, Edward G
...
Producers and directors such as David O
...
Zanuck, Mervyn LeRoy, William Wyler, George Stevens, and Billy Wilder made significant
contributions to cinematic art
...


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LESSON 26
MOTION PICTURES – A NEW WAY IN MASS COMMUNICATION (Cont
...

Later, during Hollywood's “golden age,” thousands of sumptuous movie palaces were erected all over the
United States, and drive-in movie theaters became popular outside urban centers
...
In 1938 there were more than 80 million
single admissions per week (65% of the population)
...

From studios to film series
The industry in its heyday (1930–49) was managed by a number of omnipotent studios, including
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Warner Brothers, RKO, Paramount, Twentieth Century-Fox, and Universal
...
The range of themes
included the criminal underworld, behind-the-scenes newspaper dramas, westerns, musicals, and costume
romances, character series such as the Charlie Chaplin films, prison stories, mysteries, comedies, and
Broadway shows
...

Post-Studio Era
In the 1950s, two developments ended the studios' grip on the entertainment business: the
overwhelming popularity of television began to eat into studio profits and the studios were forced by the
federal courts to yield the control of distribution and exhibition that they had maintained by means of
massive conglomerate corporations
...
Independent distributors and
theaters took a huge cut of the industry's income after World War II, and the studios cut wages and laid off
employees in a struggle to survive
...
In
the 1950s experiments abounded with wide-screen processes, such as Cinema Scope and Cinerama and
stereophonic sound systems
...
Scott, Audrey Hepburn, and Sidney Poitier
...
Independent production became the norm, with the studios
acting as distributors only, and new kinds of films emerged: horror, science fiction, and rock 'n' roll stories
aimed at teen-agers proliferated
...

The trend away from the glamorous celebrity image that began in the 1960s gained momentum in the 70s
...
Important American directors of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s include Peter Bogdanovich,
Roman Polanski, Francis Ford Coppola, Robert Altman, and Martin Scorsese
...
Filmmakers were now encouraged to
speak to the widest possible audience
...
Star Wars

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(1977) cracked the $200 million barrier, and E
...
(1982) earned over $300 million
...
This trend has continued into the 21st cent
...

VCRs introduction
Two developments that greatly enhanced profitability in the 1980s were the development of lowcost videocassette recorders (VCRs), which allow films to be shown at home, and the government's
relaxation of the decrees separating production from distribution
...

Beginning in the 1960s, many of the old movie palaces began to be divided into two or more auditoriums
due to weakening attendance
...
In the
early 1990s, however, the recession was reflected in movie attendance
...

One of the few positive motion-picture trends during the late 20th and early 21st century was the
development and proliferation of IMAX
...
g
...
g
...

Censorship and ethics
After several scandals led to the fear that the immorality perceived to be rampant in Hollywood
might appear on screen, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, headed by Will H
...
The Production Code, popularly known as the “Hays
Code,” a highly restrictive set of guidelines for movie content, was promulgated in 1934 and complied with
by virtually every Hollywood producer
...

In 1966, the Production Code was abandoned completely and succeeded by the Motion Picture Code and Rating Program
...
The program initially assigned each film one of four ratings: G (general audiences, without restrictions), M
(mature audiences, parental guidance advised), R (restricted audiences, no one younger than 18 admitted without a parent or
guardian), and X (no one younger than 18 admitted)
...
M was
eventually supplanted by PG (parental guidance suggested), PG-13, was introduced for films that might contain material
inappropriate for pre-teenagers, and NC-17 replaced X, which had become associated with pornographic films
...
The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film has historically been the
primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures
...
Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the
cinema and the movies
...
They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these
images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer
...

A true art-form
Film is considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and
inspire audiences
...
Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of
dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue
...

Films come to subcontinent
The Lumière Brothers of France exhibited their short films in December 1895 at Grande Cafe,
Paris
...
It was a package of 6 films viz, Entry of cinematograph, Arrival of the train, The
sea bath, A demolition, Leaving the factory and Ladies and Soldiers on wheels
...
Entrance tickets ranged from four anaas to one
rupee
...
It was made by Dadasaheb
Phalke
...
The first Indian sound film,
Ardeshir Irani's Alam Ara (1931), was a super hit
...

The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: like the whole world the subcontinent was rocked by the
Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition
...
In late 1950s, Bollywood films moved from black-and-white to colour
...
Successful actors included Dev
Anand, Dilip Kumar and Raj Kapoor
...
They copy ideas, plot lines, tunes from sources Hollywood and other
Western movies, Western pop hits)
...
Copyright enforcement was lax here
...
Audiences also may not have been aware of the plagiarism, since many in the
Indian audience were unfamiliar with Western films and tunes
...

Pre-cinema times
Telling stories from the epics using hand-drawn tableau images in scroll paintings, with
accompanying live sounds have been an age old tradition
...
And so when the Lumière brothers' representatives held the first
public showing at Mumbai's (Bombay) Watson's Hotel on July 7, 1896, the new phenomenon did not create
much of a stir here and no one in the audience ran out at the image of the train speeding towards them, as it
did elsewhere
...
Such films were
shown as added attractions after the stage performances or taken to distant venue where the stage
performers could not reach
...
The first decade of the 20th century saw live and recorded
performances being clubbed together in the same program
...

First local film showing
Raja Harish Chandra
Director Dada Saheb Phalke made a studio in Dadar Main Road, wrote the scenario, erected the set
and started shooting for his first venture Raja Harishchandra in 1912
...
The film was widely acclaimed by one and all and proved to be a great success
...
So, when
technology made it possible to tell stories through moving images, it was but natural that the film pioneer
turned to his own ancient epics for source material
...
The significant titles that
followed include - Satyawan Savitri (1914), Satyavadi Raja Harischandra (1917), Lanka Dahan (1917), Shri
Krishna Janma (1918) and Kalia Mardan (1919)
...
The
mention of Lahore as one very strong pocket which nurtured a film industry will be made in the next setting
along with cinema life in Pakistan)
...
As
the title indicates the subject is again a mythological from the Mahabharata
...

In Bengal, a region rich in culture and intellectual activity, the first Bengali feature film in 1917, was remake
of Phalke's Raja Harishchandra
...
Less prolific than Bombay based film industry, around 122 feature films were made in Calcutta in
the Silent Era
...

Calcutta film Industry
Madan Theatres of Calcutta produced Shirin Farhad and Laila Majnu (1931) well composed and
recorded musicals
...
Chandidas (1932, Bengali), the story of a
Vaishnavite poet-priest who falls in love with a low caste washerwoman and defies convention, was a superhit
...

Cinema Starts Talking
In the early thirties, the silent Indian cinema began to talk, sing and dance
...

Mumbai became the hub of the Indian film industry having a number of self-contained production units
...

Hindu cast system was first to get attention
The hindu culture based strongly on cast-divide and not be changed by long muslim rule, but
strongly felt by hindu scholars, was the first to get attention when a strong mass medium like film was
invented
...
From his first Ayodhya ka Raja (1932) to Admi (1939), it was clear that he was a
filmmaker with a distinct style
...

Even when Shantaram took up stories from the past, he used these as parables to highlight contemporary
situations
...
Duniya Na Mane (1937) was about a young
woman's courageous resistance to a much older husband whom she had been tricked into marrying
...

Tamil cinema emerged as a veritable entertainment industry in 1929 with the creation of General Picture
Corporation in Madras (Chennai)
...
The first talkie of South India, Srinivas Kalyanam was made by A Narayanan in
1934
...
Roti made in the early 1940s
inspired by the German Expressionism, is a real critique of Indian society with prophetic insight
...
The millionaire is saved by the couple after an air
crash, the tribal couple immigrates to the city, do not find happiness and return
...

Mehboob remade his film Aurat (1940) in colour and with drastically different imagery as Mother India
(1957), which was a massive success and later even acquired an epic status
...
Her husband having lost
both arms in an accident leaves her
...
One of her sons, Birju becomes a rebel and the other one Ramu
remains a dutiful son
...

Highly successful and critically acclaimed, Mehboob's films often derive from clash between pre-capitalist
ruralism and an increasingly modernized state with its commercial-industrial practices and values
...
His
directorial debut was with Udayer Pathey (1944)
...
Do Bigha Zamin
(1953) and Sujata were two of the most notable films of Bimal Roy, who basically was a reformist, a
humanist liberal
...
Though the situation was tragic, Roy sought to relieve the
starkness by brave and hopeful songs and dances
...

Raj Kapoor
Born in Peshawar, now in Pakistan as son of Prithviraj Kapoor, Raj Kapoor acted the role of a
megastar, successful producer and a director
...
He set up the R K Films in 1948 and
made his first directorial venture Aag
...

Pakistan
Pakistan film history from 1896-1947
Pakistan shared its film history with India from 1896 to 1947
...

Pakistani artists before 1947
The first silent film from Lahore was The Daughter of Today released in 1924 and the inaugural
Punjabi or talkie film from Lahore was Heer Ranjha in 1932
...

To be continued
...
But the
part of the subcontinent which spearheaded in film arts was Lahore
...

Here we will talk in detail how the film art flourished in Lahore before partition and how this one
distinguished mean of mass communication fared in Pakistan after independence
...
Lahore produced many films
and a big number of Pakistani artists debuted in this period
...
(Alam Ara was released in 1931, which
means Lahore was going as fast and one top film-home after Bombay in the subcontinent
...
The first
Indian motion picture, D
...
Phalke’s mythological boasted of an all-male star-cast
...

First ever silent feature film from Lahore
Premier Film Company

The Daughter of Today

Released in: 1924
The first ever silent film from Punjab
Actors: A
...
Kardar, Wilayat Begum, M
...
K
...

M
...

Assistant Director: Mian Abdur Rasheed Kardar, was the man who started film making in Lahore
...

Inaugural Urdu/Hindi Indo-Pak feature film
Imperial Film Company Presents

Alam Ara

Urdu/Hindi (124 minutes, black & white)
Released on: Saturday, March 14, 1931 (Capital Cinema Lahore)
India's first talkie film was released at Bombay's Majestic cinema hall
...
long and ran for seven weeks
...

Story: A period fantasy that told of the ageing king of Kamarpur, and his two rival queens, Navbahar and
Dilbahar, and their rivalry when a fakir predicts that Navbahar will bear the king's heir
...
Eventually, Alam Ara's nomad friends invade the
palace, expose Dilbahar's schemes, release Adil from the dungeon and she marries the prince of the realm
...
Sushila (as Sushila), Jillo Bai, Prithviraj Kapoor, Elizer,
Wazir Mohammed Khan, Jagdish Sethi and L
...
Prasad
Music: Feroz Shah and B
...
M
...

Actors: Anwari Begum, Rafiq Ghazniv, Gul Hameed, Lala Yaqoob, M
...

Anwari Begum and Rafiq Ghaznavi - the grand parent of Salma Agha - played title roles in this memorable
film
...

Music: Rafiq Ghaznavi
Folk music comes to films
Pancholi Art Pictures
Khazanchi
Realesed in: 1941
Actors: Ramola, Naring, M
...
Master Ghulam Haidar
introduced Baby Noor Jehan as playback singer in this film first time
...

Mehoboob Production Ltd
...
This
film is special because it brought almost a revolution in subcontinent film world
...
Naushad Ali is
regarded as one of the greatest Music Directors of Indian Cinema
...

Singers: Noor Jehan was the most impressive film personality in the Indo-Pak film history
...

Surayya was another famous singer/actress from the 40s and 50s
...

Shamshad Begum was the first generation of top Punjabi film singers (followd by Zubaida Khanum (in
the 50s) and Madam Noor Jehan (from 40s-90s), respectively)
...


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Film songs:
Tera Khilona tuta Balik, hai qismat ne tujh ko
...

Mere bachpan ke saathi mujhe bhool na jana
...

Kya mil geya Bhagwan tumhe dil ko dukha ke…

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Mohammad Rafi
Madam Noor Jehan
Madam Noor Jehan
Madam Noor Jehan
Madam Noor Jehan

The Last Big "Pakistani" film before partition
Shoukat Arts Productions
JUGNU
Urdu/Hindi
Released on: 1947
This film was the last big film by Madam Noor Jehan and her husband director Shaukat Hussain Rizvi
before partition
...
Madam Noor Jehan was on peak of her film career
as singer and film heroine
...

Actors: Dilip Kumar - the acting legend - got breakthrough from this mega hit film
...

Music: Feroz Nizami, completed hat trick of three great musical film, first Jugnu in 1947, then Chann We
in 1951 and Dopatta 1952 - all with Noor Jehan, & G
...
Chishti was a legendry musician in Punjabi films
...

Singers: Madam Noor Jehan, Shamshad Begum
...
Started his singing career from Lahore
...

Pakistani artists started their film careers before 1947
A
...
Kardar (actor/director)
Daughters of Today
M
...
Shah Shikarpuri (comedian)
Fadaye Toheed
Nazir (actor/director)
Aab-e-Hayyat
Master Ghulam Haidar (musician)
Sanjog ki Seerhi
Najmul Hassan (actor)
Jawani ki hawa
Noor Jehan (singer/actress)
Pind di Kurri
S
...
Yousuf (director)
Bharat ka Laal
Rekha (actress)
Neela
Kumar (actor)
Hamari Betian
Ajay Kumar (actor)
Mard ka Bacha
G
...
Chishti (musician)
Sohni Mehinwal
Agha Salim Raza (actor)
Gul Bakawli
Ajmal (actor)
Gul Bakawli
Khursheed Anwar (musician)
Kurmai
Gul Zaman (actor)
Mard-e-Punjab
Najam Naqvi (director)
Puttar Millan
Zahoor Raja (actor)
Pooja
Majeed (actor)
Sandesa
Ragni (actress)
Himmat
W
...
Ahmad (director)
Ek Raat

1924
1924
1932
1933
1935/1933
1933
1933
1934
1934
1935
1935
1935
1935
1935
1936
1936
1937
1939
1939
1940
1940
1940
1940
1940
1940
1942

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Masood Pervez (actor/director)
Shoukat Hussain Rizvi (director)
Hamaliya Wala (actor)
M
...
Sohrab Modi's Jhansi Ki Rani (1953) was the
first Techni-color film shot in India
...

Teri Yaad (Urdu)
Teri Yaad became the first ever released film but not the first film production in Pakistan
...
Lahore was the third biggest film center in sub-continent - after Bombay and Calcutta and there were many films under production in 1947
Released in: Perbhat (Sanober) Cinema, Lahore on August 7th, 1948
...

Teri Yaad was a dead flop film and the only attraction was film hero Nasir Khan, who was brother of the
legendry Dillip Kumar
...
Her father Nath, was music director of this film
...
He had a long and successful film career
...

The first ever Punjabi and the sixth film in the list of released Pakistani films celebrated a great success in
cinemas
...

He was also the only choice as hero in 1949
...
It was a big musical hit and the Music Director G
...
Chishti wrote, composed and recorded

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six songs of this film in a single day! Chishti was also the most productive Music Director in the first 25
years of Pakistan
...
A
...

Cinema houses - a new business
...

Billboards all over in so much color - landscape changed
...

Strong expression against hated figures in society, oppressors- at least can see on screen
...


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LESSON 29

PROPAGANDA
Message conveyed in order to support and spread a particular opinion or point of view, engaging
the emotions of the audience
...
"
The term propaganda carries many definitions
...
" Like other social
scientists, he emphasizes its psychological elements: propaganda was a subconscious manipulation of
psychological symbols to accomplish secret objectives
...

History
The term comes from Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), a
missionary organization established by the Pope in 1622
...
Misleading
statements and even lies may be used to create the desired effect in the public audience
...

Prior to the 20th century, pictures and the written media were the principal instruments of propaganda;
radio, television, motion pictures, and the internet later joined their ranks
...
In wartime, propaganda directed by a country at its own civilian population and military forces
can boost morale; propaganda aimed at the enemy is an element of psychological warfare
...
One such categorization classifies propaganda as:
 White Propaganda
 Grey Propaganda
 Black Propaganda
White propaganda is correctly attributed to the sponsor and the source is truthfully identified
...
)
Grey propaganda, on the other hand, is un-attributed to the sponsor and conceals the real source of the
propaganda
...
The reasoning is
that propaganda materials from an identified propaganda agency might convince few, but the same ideas
presented by seemingly neutral outlets would be more persuasive
...
Other tactics involve wide dissemination of ideas put forth by others—by foreign
governments, by national and international media outlets, or by private groups, individuals, and institutions
...
This type is very common in news world
...
g
...

Black propaganda also masks the sponsor's participation
...
Black propaganda is subversive and provocative; it is usually designed to

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appear to have originated from a hostile source, in order to cause that source embarrassment, to damage its
prestige, to undermine its credibility, or to get it to take actions that it might not otherwise
...
It routinely employs underground newspapers, forged
documents, planted gossip or rumors, jokes, slogans, and visual symbols
...
The letter may serve
purpose of some interested group
...
But damage
has been done especially if it is done during election days
...
Fast media are designed to exert a
short-term impact on public opinion, while the use of slow media cultivates public opinion over the long
period
...
These forms of communication are able to exert an almost instantaneous effect on selected
audiences
...

Revolution, War, and Propaganda to 1917
Propaganda has a long history
...
Anthropologists have
unearthed evidence that primitive peoples used pictures and symbols to impress others with their hunting
and fighting capabilities
...
As early as the fifth century B
...
, the Chinese military
philosopher Sun Tzu advocated various techniques to maintain fighting morale and to destroy the enemy's
will to fight
...

Thus, propaganda is not, as it is sometimes believed, a twentieth-century phenomenon born of the
electronic communications revolution
...

Advertising & public relations used as propaganda
Similarly, countless private groups—from early antislavery societies to modern political action
committees—have turned to propaganda techniques to push their agendas
...

Propaganda in revolutions
Propaganda and agitation were essential components of the American Revolution
...

Philip Davidson, in his history of the propaganda of the American Revolution, documented a remarkably
sophisticated grasp of propaganda techniques among the leading organizers of the Revolution
...
George Washington advocated the release of information "in a manner calculated to attract
the attention and impress the minds of the people
...
He wrote numerous pamphlets articulating with rhetorical to flourish the ideological
justification for the Revolution
...
They wrote
articles, letters, and pamphlets under pseudonyms to disguise their identities and to create the impression
that opposition to British policies was much greater than it was
...
Benjamin Franklin articulated a shrewd
understanding of the techniques of propaganda, including the use of grey and black materials
...
And we now find that it is not only right to strike
while the iron is hot but that it may be very practicable to heat it by continually striking
...
The letter caused a sensation in France and also induced numerous
desertions by the Hessian mercenaries
...
The story touched off a public uproar in Britain and was used by opposition
politicians to attack the conduct of the war
...
"
World Wars - 1914–1945
Notwithstanding this early experience with propaganda, it was primarily the age of total war that
inducted Governments in to the business of propaganda
...
The arrival of the modern mass media together with the
requirements of total war made propaganda an indispensable element of wartime mobilization
...

One of the most vital of all World War I propaganda battles was the struggle between Germany and Britain
for the sympathy of the American people
...

The British government, on the other hand, conducted most of its propaganda in the United States covertly,
through a secret propaganda bureau directed by the Foreign Office
...
The publication of
the Zimmerman telegram in 1917 (in which Germany sought to enlist Mexico in a war with the United
States) was undoubtedly the most important propaganda achievement of the British, and it helped to bring
the Americans into the war on the Allied side
...
S
...
Headed by the muckraking journalist George Creel, the committee was responsible for
censorship, propaganda, and general information about the war effort
...

The committee bombarded foreign media outlets with news, official statements, and features on the war
effort and on American life, using leaflets, motion pictures, photographs, cartoons, posters, and signboards
to promote its messages
...

Democratic governments & Propaganda
A series of investigations in the 1920s exposed the nature and scope of Britain's propaganda
campaign in the United States, including revelations that the British had fabricated numerous stories about
German atrocities
...
It was
thus in the aftermath of World War I that propaganda acquired its negative connotations—a development

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that stemmed from the employment of propaganda by a democracy, not, as is generally supposed, from that
of a dictatorship
...
The belief that Americans
had been tricked into participating in the First World War delayed U
...
intervention in the second
...

The development of radio revolutionized the practice of propaganda by making it possible to reach
audiences of unprecedented size instantaneously
...

In the early part of 1941, as war appeared imminent, Roosevelt created several additional agencies to
disseminate propaganda at home and abroad
...
Roosevelt also established the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the forerunner of the
Central Intelligence Agency, and authorized it to engage in black and gray propaganda abroad, mostly in
connection with military operations
...
Eisenhower created a separate psychological warfare
branch of the army to participate in the Allied invasion of North Africa
...
Psychological warfare was especially important in the Pacific
theater, where U
...
propaganda sought to convince Japanese soldiers—who had been taught by their army
that to surrender meant relinquishing their place as members of Japanese society—to cease resistance
...
In a speech delivered to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Truman articulated the
perennial domestic justification for official U
...
propaganda: in order to combat enemy lies, the U
...
needed
to promote the truth
...

In April 1951, Truman created the Psychological Strategy Board to coordinate the American psychological
warfare effort
...
It supervised programs for aggressive clandestine warfare and propaganda measures
against the Soviet bloc and it developed "psychological strategy" plans for dozens of countries in Western
Europe, Asia, and the Middle East
...
S
...

The CIA also conducted clandestine propaganda operations in allied and neutral areas
...
In
Western Europe the CIA conducted a secret program of cultural and ideological propaganda through the
Congress for Cultural Freedom, a purportedly private, but CIA-funded, organization that supported the
work of anticommunist liberals
...

During the Korean War, sensationalized charges that the United States had been waging bacteriological warfare, accounts of
Soviet brainwashing techniques, and communist-inspired "peace" campaigns, focused American attention on psychological
warfare as a mysterious Cold War weapon
...
In San Francisco he delivered a major speech on the
subject, arguing that every significant act of government should reflect psychological warfare calculations
...
Through propaganda, policy initiatives, and covert action,
agents of the governments acted directly to influence the ideas, values, beliefs, opinions, actions, politics,
and culture of other countries
...
The old maxim that one government
does not interfere in the internal affairs of another had been swept aside
...
Foreign policy could no
longer be pursued as it had during the nineteenth century, when diplomacy was the exclusive area of
diplomats
...


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LESSON 30

RADIO – A BREAKTHROUGH IN MASS COMMUNICATION
People around the world were benefiting from the newspapers as one fine mean of mass
communication since the middle of 15th century that in the last decade of the 19th century scientists came
close to opening gates for an entirely different means of communication which would require no paper and
printing press and transportation of the publication
...
It was the invention of radio
...

What is radio?
Radio is a technology that allows the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic
waves with frequencies below those of light
...

This is the range from a few tens of hertz to a few giga hertz
...

By contrast, other types of electromagnetic radiation, with frequencies above the RF range are gamma rays,
X-rays, and infrared, ultraviolet and visible light
...

In 1878 David E
...
He demonstrated his discovery
to the Royal Society in 1880 but was told it was merely induction
...
A great achievement indeed
it proved to be
...
In 1897 he established the world's first Radio Station on the Isle of Wight, England
...
The
US Patent Office reversed its decision in 1904, awarding Guglielmo Marconi a patent for the invention of
radio, possibly influenced by Marconi's financial backers in the States, who included Thomas Edison and
Andrew Carnegie
...

In 1909 Marconi, with Karl Ferdinand Braun, was also awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for
"contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
...
Around 1900, Tesla
opened the Wardenclyffe Tower facility and advertised services
...
Various theories exist on how Tesla intended to achieve the goals of this wireless system

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(reportedly, a 200 kW system)
...

Others work acknowledgement
In 1894 British physicist Sir Oliver Lodge demonstrated the possibility of signaling using radio
waves using a detecting device called a coherer, a tube filled with iron filings which had been invented by
Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti at Fermo in Italy in 1884
...
Popov, who developed a practical communication
system based on the coherer, is often considered by his own countrymen to have been the inventor of
radio
...
Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included
Fessenden playing the song O Holy Night on the violin and reading a passage from the Bible
...
The
world's first regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research
Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford, England, which was also the location of the world's first "wireless"
factory
...
While some early radios
used some type of amplification through electric current or battery, through the mid 1920s the most
common type of receiver was the Crystal set
...

Advancement on radio technology continues
 Aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation
...

 In the early 1930s, single sideband and frequency modulation were invented by amateur radio
operators
...

 Radio was used to transmit pictures visible as television as early as the 1920s
...

 In 1954, Regency introduced a pocket transistor radio, the TR-1, powered by a "standard 22
...

 In 1960, Sony introduced their first transistorized radio, small enough to fit in a vest pocket, and
able to be powered by a small battery
...

Over the next twenty years, transistors displaced tubes almost completely except for very high
power, or very high frequency, uses
...

 In the late 1960s, the U
...
long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network,
employing digital radios for many of its links
...
Soon, the U
...
Navy
experimented with satellite navigation, culminating in the invention and launch of the GPS
constellation in 1987
...
In 1994, the U
...
Army and DARPA launched an aggressive, successful
project to construct a software radio that could become a different radio on the fly by changing
software
...


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World grabs radio for a range of uses











AM broadcast radio sends music and voice in the Medium Frequency (MF -- 0
...
AM radio uses amplitude modulation, in which louder sounds at the
microphone causes wider fluctuations in the transmitter power while the transmitter frequency
remains unchanged
...

FM broadcast radio sends music and voice, with higher fidelity than AM radio
...
FM is transmitted in the Very High Frequency (VHF -- 30
MHz to 300 MHz) radio spectrum
...
Another effect is that the shorter radio waves act more like light, travelling in straight
lines that are not reflected back towards the Earth by the ionosphere, resulting in a shorter effective
reception range
...
AM is used so that multiple stations on the same channel can
be received
...
Aircraft are often so high that their radios can see hundreds of miles,
even though they are using VHF
...

TETRA, Terrestrial Trunked Radio is a digital cell phone system for military, police and
ambulances
...

Government, police, fire and commercial voice services use narrowband FM on special frequencies
...


What to broadcast
Early radio stations faced the problem of target audience, especially in a pluralistic society
...
So a part
of broadcast was meant to the specific nature of audience along side news and entertainment
...

Other societies with religious dominance do the same
...
music, plays, children and women
...
on health and common social life matters
...
The
property of radio which did not require transportation of the message drew immense attention of common
people and investors in the field of mass media
...

In the last chapter we had a detailed view of the growth of radio in the 20th century
...

Peace time
Entertainment
As already mentioned, radio brought a unique entertainment opportunities to people, especially for
those who could not afford the luxury of visiting places where entertainment was available only to the rich
...
But it was the entertainment which made the radio popular on first instance
...
Comedy shows, gossip chat and
answering letters from listeners made people crazy about radio enjoyments
...
No fairy tales, but the radio brought news from across the oceans and from inland without
distinction
...

The news aired regularly from different stations were followed by views and a much spicy discussion among
experts to generate more interest in events from social and political life
...

Education
As radio continued to have its impression on the cultural outlook of the societies by pouring in
more opinions of experts in different fields of social life, it started special services to educate people on
scores of issues foremost among those have been the healthcare matters
...

Jobs
Radio opened gates of jobs never known before
...
It still is
...

Advertising helped
The corporate sector sensed the importance of radio as one strong medium to reach very high
number of consumers of their products and services and started buying time for this purpose
...
Since the popularity of the commercial programs was
dependent hugely on the entertaining side, the glamour was but to appear broad and loud
...


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Promotion of other industries like film industry
The film industry which was also in its nascent stages was one noticeable area which benefited
tremendously from radio technology
...
At one stage in 30s and 40s it
appeared as the radio and film world are only two names of one same product
...

Still a number of radio and TV stations are heavily depended on matters related to film industry
...
A nation at war has only one goal of fighting against the enemy
...
Radio news, commentary, announcements and war music are
commodities in high demand by a society at war
...
The quickest source of telling people what to do, where to move and what instruction they must follow
have always come from radio
...

Special band used by armies to communicate
It is not the common people who benefit from radio services but the armies have been gaining
much advantage due to radio technology
...

Communicating through codes is the common most practice during wartimes
...

Ships, planes are connected through radio frequencies
It is not the activities of armies on the land which are linked with radio messages, ships in the deep
sea and the war planes in the air are also connected with radio frequencies
...

Propaganda – to morale boosting and demoralizing enemy
The worst in wars occur in the form of propaganda at a wide scale to demoralize the enemy
...

Laws
The invention and usage of radio has been instrumental in introducing laws which regulate the
radio programs and ensure that no misuse of this technology takes place which may cause problems to
social life
...
Dictatorial government have
always used censorships to ensure that a public opinion is not molded against them by certain interest
groups
...
Conventional transmission is by means of
electromagnetic radiation, using the methods of radio
...
In the developed world, the average household watches television for seven hours per day, which
helps to explain why news, sports, and educational entities, as well as advertisers, value the device for
communication
...

TV came like a bang as the time distance between the invention of radio and television is not much
...

How it started?
The electronic way of communication was quite well know by the start of the 20th century but in
almost all cases it was limit to sending or receiving voice messages
...
The name of Marconi, however, stands
distinguished in the eyes of many as the inventor of radio
...
But obviously the new invention has been the result of the extensive work done by scores of
other scientists as well
...
No single person invented the television;
instead, it is a compilation of inventions perfected by fierce competition
...

Baron Ȯns Berzelius of Sweden isolated selenium in 1817, and Louis May of Great Britain discovered, in
1873, that the element is a strong electrical conductor
...

Paul Nipkow of Germany made the first crude television in 1884
...
A
receiver reassembled the picture
...
Hallwachs applied photoelectric cells in cameras; cathode rays
were demonstrated as devices for reassembling the image at the receiver by Boris Rosing of Russia and A
...
Campbell-Swinton of Great Britain, both working independently in 1907
...

Although Logie Baird had been developing his own methods of televised images for many years it was in
1924 that he first demonstrated a mechanically scanned television system which transmitted objects in
outline and went on the following year to show the head of a dummy, not just in outline but as a real image
...

TV changes some basic concepts
TV is largely responsible for bringing about so many social, cultural and economic changes- and
that too with rapid speed, and is considered as one major factor to help globalize human thinking and

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understanding on various matters by fully exploiting all the elements possible in visual communication, or
say broadcasting
...

By 1935, mechanical systems for transmitting black-and-white images were replaced completely by
electronic methods that could generate hundreds of horizontal bands at 30 frames per second
...

Zworykin, a Russian immigrant who first worked for Westinghouse, patented an electronic camera tube
based on the cathode tube
...
Farnsworth and Allen B
...

From Black and White to color
The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) had entered the color TV fray and battled with RCA to
perfect color television, initially with mechanical methods until an all-electronic color system could be
developed
...
The first CBS color broadcast on June 25, 1951, featured Ed Sullivan and
other stars of the network
...

In December of 1954, RCA introduced their 21" color TV
...

1950-1959 was an exciting time period for television
...

II World War
The sudden outbreak of WW2 halted to some extent progress on TV transmissions and
improvement in technological advancement in making TV a household item for most
...
The images of war ridden and ravaged sites on mini
screens of old-fashioned TV sets would pull crowd to watch those and get influenced by the devastation of
the mad war
...
It was a sight not to be
forgotten for those who first witnessed defeat of German armies at different fronts and marching of the
allied forces on the German land towards the last days of the war
...
Classification of its
transmission has been made in the following manner
...
The oldest existing standard, developed in the USA
...
Consists of 525 horizontal lines of display and 60 vertical lines
...
Developed in France
...
A
625-line vertical, 50-line horizontal display
...
Developed by German engineer Walter Bruch who patented his invention
1963 and the first commercial application of the PAL system was in August 1967
...
Proponents call it "Perfection At Last
...
The principle means
recording television programs for future use is videotape recording
...
The sound is recorded along with the video signal on the same tape
...
The waves are sensed by antennas connected
television receivers
...

Most television viewers across the world no longer receive signals by using antennas; instead, they receive
programming via cable television
...
A
single, well-placed community antenna received the broadcast signals and distributed them over coaxial or
fiber-optic cables to areas that otherwise would not be able to receive them
...
Many systems now provide more than
100 channels of programming
...

The first transatlantic television broadcast was accomplished by such a satellite, called Telstar, on July 10,
1962
...
Most
satellite-delivered signals are scrambled and require a special decoder to receive them clearly
...
More research is going into this process
...

This system produces a movie-quality picture by using a 1,125-line picture on a "letter-box" format screen
with a 16 to nine width to height ratio
...

Other developments in the receiver include gold-plated jacks, an internal polarity switch on large screens
that compensates for the effect of Earth's magnetic field on image reception, accessories to eliminate ghosts
on the screen
...
Assorted computer chips add functions like channel labeling, time and data
displays, swap and freeze motions, parental channel control, touch screens, and a range of channel-surfing
options
...
Two-way TV will also be possible
...
Computer technology will then allow a world of
manipulation of the data as well as broadcast of six times as much data
...
Not only radio
broadcast was being made from Lahore and Peshawar but it was growing steadily
...

From the early 60s there had been a talk to start television broadcast in Pakistan
...

Main obstacle in setting up a TV station was not the money, but non availability of the technical staff which
must run the broadcasting house on sound footings
...

By this time TV had advanced to color transmission in a number of countries, the PTV was a B/W version
...
No one
would have imagined at that point of time, that this small box would bring a revolution in mass
communication in this part of the world where other means of mass communication were proving relatively
costlier
...
TV sets were not frequently
available in the markets and the ones available for sale were expensive and only the rich could afford the
cost of getting a set
...
Relatives and neighbors would gather
around the box much before the broadcast
...

The first sight of the announcer was cheered and voices were raised to call others to come as it has started
now
...
It
was not limit to household activity; TV transmission was also watched at the monitoring rooms of
newspapers for getting the latest from around the world
...

Evening Transmission only
TV broadcast was limit to five hours, from 6 pm to 11 pm with one weekly holiday on Monday
...
Hardly a person would move away till the national anthem was played to mark end of the day’s
transmission
...

Live Broadcast
The most prominent feature of PTV’s early years was the live transmission for it did not have the
recording facilities
...
It was a unique experience for all the directors, producers, performers and the technical staff
...

Many radio artists seemed moving to and fro between radio station and the PTV building next door to accomplish the task of
live transmission and rehearsals
...
Nothing was above
the country’s defense
...
Its OB teams went to
the borders and captured some incredible images of the battlefield
...
With madam Noor Jahan’s spirited national songs in the backdrop, the
PTV’s showings worked as a catalyst to fuel the passion for national defense
...
Now a drama at Lahore station could be watched by viewers in Karachi and Islamabad at the same
time and similar transmission from Karachi could be made for the upcountry stations
...
The Karachi and Rawalpindi stations, which
were functioning since 1967, were linked with the live coverage of the events from Lahore
...
From Shalimar Gardens civic reception to saying prayers at the historic Badshahi Mosque, and
from the public meeting at the Qaddafi stadium – also addressed by Libya’s president Col Qaddafi, to the
business meetings at the Punjab Assembly floor was a great job done by the PTV in a commendably
organized way
...
Another reason to do away with the black and white broadcast
was that in most part of the world the TV transmission was getting colored and companies were now not
making parts for the equipment used in the B/W transmission
...
Regular Color transmission started from
Feb 18, 1982
...

1992 – Second TV channel for education commissioned
...

1998 – Transmission of PTV world programmes started
...
48 %
...
19 %, population covered: 55
...

Dramas – the source of strength to PTV
PTV excelled in broadcasting various programs – news analysis, talk shows especially for the youth
and entertainment purposes
...
To mention a few;
Parchhaian
Aik muhabat sua afsanay
Shama
Waris
Alpha bravo Charlie
Tanhayian
Alif noon
Sona chandi
Khuda ki basti
Dhoop kinaray
Another area where TV in Pakistan has been a major source of entertainment is the coverage of sporting events
...
It also brings business to TV
...
The strong verbal and
non verbal combination and the facility to highlight different subject matters created one of the most
important impressions in mass media
...

Here we will see some of the key changes affected by TV transmissions in general
...
People already informed about an
event still like to see the news along with footage on TV
...
So is about visuals on accidents and unusual events like hanging of Iraqi
leader Saddam Hussain etc
...
Students
tend to finish their homework before their favorite show
...
Men would get ready for relaxing by watching programs of their interest
...
Early to bed
...

Fashion
Working on the psyche of youth, especially young ladies, TV plays and shows have concentrated
over the years in introducing new and trendy dresses, particularly in the advertisements which are integral
part of TV transmissions all across the world
...

Household entity and change in habits
TV has become one essential household entity
...
It is this strong feeling of TV presence that is helping change habits
pertaining to talking style, eating timings, and seeing relatives etc
...
Though you are not concentrating hard on a program on health matters, the visuals
shown are telling you how to clean you teeth or apply a medicine or take exercises
...

Cultural changes and influences
Perhaps most affected of all areas due to watching TV is the cultural changes that have come about
over the years
...
That is one reason that intellectuals
always campaign to show as much of a local culture on TV broadcast as possible so that cultural identity of
a particular region, tribe, nation or clan be kept in its traditional way
...
Smelling a deliberate attempt to seduce the youth of
conservative societies to the sparkling and bold images of the west, there rages a strong debate under the
title of cultural imperialism
...
Nonetheless, the
conflict of influencing cultures through TV showings during news, entertainment and sports is going strong
...
The time for gathering the
family members for the matinee show is long over
...
In most cases it is an interesting TV drama, musical show or a cricket match which is not
allowing family members or friends to go out for entertainment
...
In many countries, and Pakistan is
no exception, theaters have seen a steep decline in their business
...

Case Study
The nation's established mass media—radio, films, and newspapers—reacted differently to
television's sudden presence in the American home
...
Radio's relative
portability allowed some recovery, especially with the development of the transistor
...
Those unhappy with what another family member
insisted on watching could listen to a radio elsewhere in the house
...
At the same time, radio listening while driving became much
more common as more automobiles were equipped with radios, and the percentage of Americans who
owned cars increased
...
Stations hired disc jockeys who continuously
played rock and roll music
...
Advertisers prized their parents more
...
Radio stations continued to narrow their formats by age, race, and politics
...
Theater attendance dropped sharply in the
late 1940s and early 1950s
...
With marginal theaters closing, the studios responded by reducing the number of
movies produced per year
...
(Not until 1972 did most homes have color televisions
...

Although most large studios at first resisted cooperating with the television networks, by the mid-1950s
virtually every movie company was involved in some TV production
...
In the late 1960s, motion picture firms began producing TV movies,
that is, two-hour films specifically for television
...

But a few had enormous impact
...
Although the TV films remained
popular through the 1980s, higher costs caused the networks to lose their enthusiasm for the genre, which
all but disappeared from the small screen in the 1990s
...
With
the TV becoming popular mode of learning latest on the news front, many newspapers appear struggling
for their survival
...

The print industry – newspapers, magazines, books etc – have experienced a huge cut in their revenue as
most part of the advertising budgets by the corporate sector and individual business organizations have
been diverted to TV where the outcome is more rewarding as compared to the advertising campaigns run
on print media
...
TV seems to have
dramatically changed the political environment and now people can talk to their leaders who frequently
appear on different TV talk shows
...
Have a
good rather strong public relation approach and climb up the ladder of promotion quickly
...
This clearly indicates the importance of the public
relation in communication
...
The presence of PR in mass communication is mainly due to corporate sector which has
over the decades exploited PR for the promotion of their products, personalities and services
...

Definition
 Aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group seeking
public attention
...




One of the earliest definitions of PR was coined by Edward Bernays
...
"



According to two American PR professionals Scott M
...
Center, "PR is a
planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible performance based
upon mutual satisfactory two-way communication"
...
In the United States, where public relations has its
origins, many early PR practices were developed in support of the expansive power of the railroads
...

Mass media-men employed
Later, PR practitioners were—and are still often—recruited from the ranks of journalism
...

Despite many journalists' discomfort with the field of public relations, well-paid PR positions remain a
popular choice for reporters and editors forced into a career change by the instability of the print and
electronic media industry
...

WW I pushed PR
The First World War also helped stimulate the development of public relations as a profession
...
S
...


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Some historians regard Ivy Lee as the first real practitioner of public relations, but Edward Bernays is
generally regarded today as the profession's founder
...

Bernays commented,
"When I came back to the United States, I decided that if you could use propaganda for war, you could certainly use it for
peace
...
So what I did was to try to find some other
words, so we found the words Council on Public Relations"
...
In 1929, he orchestrated a legendary
publicity stunt aimed at persuading women to take up cigarette smoking, which was then considered
unfeminine and inappropriate for women with any social standing
...
Photographs of what Bernays dubbed the
"Torches of Liberty Brigade" were sent to newspapers, convincing many women to equate smoking with
women's rights
...

PR standards
In 1950 PRSA enacts the first "Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations," a
forerunner to the current Code of Ethics, last revised in 2000 to include six core values and six code
provisions
...
"
The six code provisions are "Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information,
Safeguarding Confidences, Conflicts of Interest, and Enhancing the Profession
...
The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the
company and its offerings
...
The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap
between how an organization sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it
...
It requires
listening to the constituencies on which an organization depends as well as analyzing and understanding the
attitudes and behaviors of those audiences
...


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Responsibility of PR
Many small business owners elect to handle the public relations activities for their own companies,
while others choose to hire a public relations specialist
...
But whatever option is chosen, the head of a company is ultimately responsible for its public
relations
...
Studies have shown that consumers often base their purchase
decisions on a company's reputation, so public relations can have a definite impact on sales and revenue
...
In the case of a for-profit company, public
relations and marketing should be coordinated to be sure they are working to achieve the same objectives
...
This involves such functions
as employee relations, stockholder and investor relations, media relations, and community relations
...
For example, a nonprofit organization may attempt to educate
the public regarding a certain point of view, while trade associations may undertake educational programs
regarding particular industries and their products and practices
...
While a specific public relations project or
campaign may be undertaken proactively or reactively (to manage some sort of image crisis), the first basic
step in either case involves analysis and research to identify all the relevant factors of the situation
...

In the second step, the organization establishes an overall policy with respect to the campaign
...
It is
necessary to establish such policy guidelines in order to evaluate proposed strategies and tactics as well as
the overall success of the campaign
...
Using its knowledge of the target audiences
and its own established policies, the organization develops specific programs to achieve the desired
objectives
...
The organization then
employs specific public relations techniques, such as press conferences or special events, to reach the
intended audience
...
How have they reacted to the public
relations campaign? Are there some unexpected developments? In the final step, the organization assesses
the program and makes any necessary adjustments
...
Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions
...
Formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding
communication with its publics
...
Coordination of communications programs
...
Developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process
...
Fostering a positive relationship between an organization and its public constituents
...

Typically, they support sales in the short and long term, establishing and burnishing the
corporation's branding for a strong, ongoing market
...

 Non-profit organizations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social
service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs,
staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services
...

Industry today
According to the U
...
Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were approximately 122,000 public relations
specialists in the United States in 1998, while there were approximately 485,000 advertising, marketing, and
public relations managers working in all industries
...
Because similar opinions tend to be shared by a group of people rather than an entire society,
research may be conducted to determine a range of things such as target audiences, appeal, as well as
strategies for coordinated message presentation
...
Public Relations sets out to effect widespread opinion and behavior changes
...
According to the PRSA,
"Examples of the knowledge that may be required in the professional practice of public relations
include communication arts, psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and the
principles of management and ethics
...
"
Job specialization
Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as corporate servants, the reality is
that almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs at least one
PR manager
...
Government
agencies, trade associations, and other non-profit organizations commonly carry out PR activities
...
An effective communication,
or public relations, plan for an organization is developed to communicate to an audience (whether internal
or external publics) in such a way the message coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit
mutual interests whenever possible
...
As is the case with most areas of studies and practices PR has also been categorized into
different sections with each section having its own characteristics and business value
...

Specializations
 Property development & real estate PR
 Retail sector PR
 Agricultural PR
 Food service PR
 Health care PR
 Technology/IT PR
 Public affairs PR
 On-line PR
 Financial/investor relations
 Not-for-profit PR
 Crisis communication PR
All these categories are managed by experts who specialize in their relative fields
...
Publicity is the spreading of information to gain
public awareness in a product, service, candidate, etc
...

Audience targeting
A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and to tailor
every message to appeal to that audience
...
Marketers often refer to economy-driven "demographics," such as
"white males 18-49," but in public relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone wants to
reach
...

All audiences are stakeholders, but not all stakeholders are audiences
...
The charity and the
people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money
...
This is not always easy to do, and sometimes –
especially in politics – a spokesperson or client says something to one audience that angers another audience
or group of stakeholders
...

Press conferences provide an opportunity for speakers to control information and who gets it; depending
on the circumstances, speakers may hand-pick the journalists they invite to the conference instead of
making themselves available to any journalist who wishes to attend
...
However, someone who holds several press conferences on a topic will be asked questions
by the press, regardless of whether they indicate they will entertain them, and the more conferences the
person holds, the more aggressive the questioning may become
...

But questions from reporters – especially hostile reporters – detracts from the control a speaker has over
the information they give out
...

Press releases
The typical press release announces that the statement is "FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE" across
the top (some may instead be embargoed until a certain date), and lists the issuing organization's media
contacts directly below
...

 Who
 What
 When
 Where
 Why
 How
A press release is a written statement distributed to the media
...

Very often the information in a press release finds its way verbatim or minimally altered, to print and
broadcast reports
...
This style of news writing makes it
easier for reporters to quickly grasp the message
...
PR practitioners research and write releases that encourage as much "lifting" as
possible
...
The level of skepticism depends on what the story is and who's telling
it
...

With the advent of modern electronic media and new technology, press releases now have equivalents in
these media, video news releases and audio news releases
...
Unlike conventional press releases of yore, written for journalists' eyes only, in hopes the editor or
reporter would find the content compelling enough to turn it into print or electronic news coverage, the
optimized press release is posted on an online news portal
...
If written skillfully, the press release can rank highly

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in searches on Google News, Yahoo or MSN News (or the many other minor news portals) for the chosen
keyword phrases
...
In the days before news search
engines, a press release would have landed only in the hands of a news reporter or an editor who would
make the decision about whether the content warranted news coverage
...
Optimized press releases
circumvent the mainstream media which is formerly—but no longer—the gatekeeper of the news
...

These groups purport to represent a particular interest
...

Astroturfing
Creating an artificial "grassroots" movement is known as astroturfing
...

Spin

In public relations, spin is a, sometimes critical term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in one's
own favor of an event or situation
...

Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents, when they produce a
counter argument or position
...

State-run media in many countries also engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable
to the government while censoring anything that could be considered critical
...

Other








Publicity events or publicity stunts
The talk show circuit
...

Books and other writings
After a PR practitioner has been working in the field for a while, he or she accumulates a list of
contacts in the media and elsewhere in the public affairs sphere
...

Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather than through the mass
media) with, e
...
, newsletters – in print and e-letters
...


The process of public relations
Experts Scott Cutlip, Allen Center and Glen Broom describe the public relations process in four
steps (1994)
...

According to them this should answer the question, "What's happening now?"

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The next step in the public relations process is "Planning and Programming," where the main focus is
"strategy," Cutlip, Center and Broom argue that this step should answer the question "What should we do
and say, and why?" The third step in the public relations process is "Taking action and Communicating,"
also known as "Implementation;" this step should answer the question "How and when do we do and say
it?" The final step in Cutlip, Center and Broom's Four-Step Public Relations Process is "Evaluating The
Program," making a final "assessment," which should answer the question "How did we do," this is where
public relations professionals make a final analysis of the success of their campaign or communication
...
These same methods are used in defining
what medium of communication will be used in the process of strategy and what tools will be used in
relaying the message, such as press releases, brochures, Web sites, media packs, video news releases, news
conferences and in-house publications
...
Opponents can be
candidates, organizations and other groups of people
...
Recent examples
include: "death tax" for estate tax, "racial preferences" for affirmative action, "faith-based" instead of
religious, "climate change" for global warming, and "partial-birth abortion" for pro-choice
...
If a celebrity says or does
something embarrassing, he or she will often turn it into a strength and make it part of his or her "image
...

Branching out – to live through PR
As Oscar Wilde is supposed to have said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not to be
talked about at all
...
Considering that a celebrity's
celebrity is a brand unto itself, many celebrities are under constant pressure to "reinvent" themselves, as a
prophylactic against obscurity
...
Madonna, Jay Leno, Billy Crystal, Ricky Gervais
and several other celebrities have recently written children's books, accompanied by much media coverage
...
This is especially common among
professional athletes, whose time in the spotlight is often limited by the physical demands of their jobs
...

Male celebrities like Tim Robbins, Sean Penn and Charlton Heston seem to gravitate toward politics,
although some female celebrities, such as Susan Sarandon and Barbra Streisand, also become strong political
voices
...
Hotel heiress Paris
Hilton recently announced that she was starting her own line of jewelry, and Jennifer Lopez has started a
line of clothing
...
Britney Spears also kept herself in the public eye when
she had her secretive marriage to Kevin Federline Although neither topic has to do with her career,
audiences seemed to be just as intrigued to know about her personal life
...
Persuasion, advocacy, and education are instruments through which individuals and
organizations are entitled to express themselves in a free society, and many public relations practitioners are
engaged in practices that are widely considered as beneficial, such as publicizing scientific research,
promoting charities, raising awareness of public health concerns and other issues in civil society
...
The creation of front groups is an example of what PR practitioners sometimes
term the third party technique—the art of "putting your words in someone else's mouth
...
Critics of the public relations industry, such as PR Watch, have
contended that Public Relations involves a "multi-billion dollar propaganda-for-hire industry" that
"concocts and spins the news, organizes phony 'grassroots' front groups, , and conspires with lobbyists and
politicians to thwart democracy
...

Public relations in fiction
 Absolutely Fabulous (1992 - 2004) is a British sitcom written by and starring Jennifer Saunders with
Joanna Lumley
...

 Wag the dog (1997), an American movie about a PR-consultant (Robert De Niro) that teams up with
a movie-producer (Dustin Hoffman) to cover up a presidential sex scandal by creating a fictional
war to divert the media
...
It was later adapted into a movie
of the same title in 2006
...

Here we will examine different ways employed by men to further the cause of advertising
...

A more recent version of this is advertising in film, by having a main character use an item or other of a
definite brand - an example is in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character Tom Anderton
owns a computer with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the
Bulgari logo
...

Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in
which Cadillac cars were used
...

Radio commercial
A radio commercial (often called an advert in the United Kingdom, or a spot to people in the
business) is a form of advertising in which goods, services, organizations, ideas, etc
...
Many commercials are produced by an outside ad agency and, airtime is purchased from a
station or network in exchange for sponsorship of its programming
...
While a :60 radio
commercial is twice as long as a :30 radio commercial, it is rarely sold at twice the price
...

While many commercials are professionally produced, radio is not out of reach for the small retail business
owner
...
At times local radio stations will write and even produce the radio commercials for local retail
advertisers at no additional cost when the merchant purchases a schedule of "spots" on the station
...
The ten-minute live commercial was voiced by H
...
Blackwell, a representative of
Queensboro
...
Placement of an advertisement on FM
radio costs about as much as an advertisement placed in a metropolitan newspaper
...
Indeed,
many small business consultants believe that an entertaining and informative radio advertising campaign can
be a major asset
...
Indeed, most businesses incorporate a media mix
when attempting to sell their products or services, utilizing radio advertising in concert with print and other
advertising media
...

Advantages and Disadvantages of Radio
Radio stations feature many different programming emphases
...
Since these different formats attract different demographic segments of the total audience,
business owners can take appreciable measures to reach their target audience simply by buying time on
appropriate stations
...
In addition, radio advertising content can be changed quickly to meet changes in the market or to
reflect new business objectives
...

The costs associated with purchasing radio advertising time reflect this emphasis on reaching the commuter
audience
...
The two most expensive—but also most effective advertising
slots—are the morning and afternoon drive times
...
Aspects to consider include competitor clutter, the cumulative costs associated with
long-term radio spots, and the fleeting nature of a radio message
...
Nation's Business writer Phil Hill provided a
rundown of some of these concerns in his article "Make Listeners Your Customers":
1
...

2
...

3
...
Federal law mandates that advertisers must accurately depict the
competition
...
Be prepared to run a radio advertisement often
...

5
...
There may be some instances in which a
business's products or services are compatible with only one station (i
...
, a dealer in sports
paraphernalia may want to limit his or her radio advertising to the lone sports-talk station in town),
but small businesses that offer less niche-oriented services or products can dramatically expand the
audience they reach if they use more than one station for their audio advertising
...

The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as much for its commercial
advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this
game has reached $2
...

Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics
...
More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the
background where none existing in real-life
...
Increasingly, other
mediums such as those discussed below are overtaking television due to a shift towards consumer's usage of
the Internet
...

Commercials of this sort have been used to sell every product imaginable over the years, from household
products to goods and services, to political campaigns
...

Characteristics of commercials
Many television commercials feature catchy jingles (songs or melodies) or catch-phrases that
generate sustained appeal, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the
advertising campaign
...

Few examples,
Aiy Khuda meray abbu salamat rahain
Yey dil mangay aur
Aur sonao
Talk shawk
For catching attention of consumers, communication agencies make wide use of humour
...

Animation
Animation is often used in commercials
...
By using animated characters, a commercial may have
a certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays
...

An animated character talking to a real one, is a common sight these days
...
Prices of Web-based advertising
space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website
receives
...
Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "spam"
...
Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal
advertising), and the pervasiveness of mass messages

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Unpaid advertising (also called word of mouth advertising), can provide good exposure at minimal cost
...
However, some companies oppose the use of
their brand name to label an object
...
These two measures refer to the percentage of
the universe of the existing base of audience members that can be reached by the use of each media outlet
in a particular moment in time
...
This becomes very useful when focusing advertising efforts on a particular group of
people
...
While the
overall rating of a TV show might be well over 10 rating points it might very well happen that the
same show in the same moment of time is generating only 2
...

This would mean that while the show has a large universe of viewers it is not necessarily reaching a
large universe of women in the ages of 25 to 45 making it a less desirable location to place an ad for
an advertiser looking for this particular demographic
...

Advertising Evaluation
Once the advertising campaign is over, companies normally evaluate it compared to the established
goals
...
In order to make this more effective, some companies divide up the
country into regions and run the advertising campaigns only in some areas
...
Depending on the results, a company will modify future
advertising efforts in order to maximize effectiveness
...
Advertising has evolved to
take a variety of forms and has permeated nearly every aspect of modern society
...
While advertising can be
successful at getting the message out, it does have several limitations, including its inability to (1) focus on
an individual consumer's specific needs, (2) provide in-depth information about a product, and (3) be costeffective for small companies
...

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV
...
As cable (and later satellite) television
became increasingly prevalent, "specialty" channels began to emerge, and eventually entire channels, such as
QVC and Home Shopping Network and ShopTV, devoted to advertising merchandise, where again the
consumer tuned in for the ads
...
Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free
Internet access
...
This
has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising
...
This
reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having
consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social networking sites
...
Advertising campaigns appear in different media
across a specific time frame
...
The campaign
theme is the central message that will be communicated in the promotional activities
...

Forms of Advertising
Advertising can take a number of forms, including advocacy, comparative, cooperative, and directmail, informational, institutional, outdoor, persuasive, product, reminder, point-of-purchase, and specialty
advertising
...
The advertising campaign is designed to
persuade public opinion regarding a specific issue important in the public arena
...
Almost all
nonprofit groups use some form of advocacy advertising to influence the public's attitude toward a
particular issue
...
The AARP fights to protect social programs such as Medicare and
Social Security for senior citizens by encouraging its members to write their legislators, using television
advertisements to appeal to emotions, and publishing a monthly newsletter describing recent state and
federal legislative action
...

Comparative Advertising
Comparative advertising compares one brand directly or indirectly with one or more competing
brands
...
One drawback of comparative advertising is that customers have
become more skeptical about claims made by a company about its competitors because accurate
information has not always been provided, thus making the effectiveness of comparison advertising
questionable
...
Incorrect or misleading information may trigger a
lawsuit by the aggrieved company or regulatory action by a governmental agency such as the Federal Trade
Commission (FTC)
...
Manufacturers
and distributors, because of their shared interest in selling the product, usually use this cooperative
advertising technique
...
Cooperative advertising is especially appealing to small
storeowners who, on their own, could not afford to advertise the product adequately
...
Directmail advertising has several advantages, including detail of information, personalization, selectivity, and
speed
...
"
Informational Advertising
In informational advertising, which is used when a new product is first being introduced, the
emphasis is on promoting the product name, benefits, and possible uses
...

Institutional Advertising
Institutional advertising takes a much broader approach, concentrating on the benefits, concept,
idea, or philosophy of a particular industry
...

Institutional advertising is closely related to public relations, since both are interested in promoting a
positive image of the company to the public
...
A
theme of this nature keeps the company's name in a positive light with the general public because the
replanting of trees is viewed positively by most people
...
Since repetition is the key to
successful promotion, outdoor advertising is most effective when located along heavily traveled city streets
and when the product being promoted can be purchased locally
...

Persuasive Advertising
Persuasive advertising is used after a product has been introduced to customers
...
For example, automobile manufacturers often
produce special advertisements promoting the safety features of their vehicles
...

Product Advertising
Product advertising pertains to non-personal selling of a specific product
...
The primary purpose of the advertisement is to promote the
specific soft drink, not the entire soft-drink line of a company
...
The advertisements are simply designed to remind customers about the product and to maintain
awareness
...

Point-of-Purchase Advertising
Point-of-purchase advertising uses displays or other promotional items near the product that is
being sold
...
Stores are more likely to use point-of-purchase displays if they have help from the manufacturer in
setting them up or if the manufacturer provides easy instructions on how to use the displays
...


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Specialty Advertising
Specialty advertising is a form of sales promotion designed to increase public recognition of a
company's name
...
The value of specialty advertising varies depending on how long the items
used in the effort last
...


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LESSON 38

IMPACT OF ADVERTISING
Advertising Objectives
Advertising objectives are the communication tasks to be accomplished with specific customers
that a company is trying to reach during a particular time frame
...
Which of the
four advertising objectives is selected usually depends on where the product is in its life cycle
...
Companies will typically employ creative advertising strategies in order to cut through other
competing advertisements
...

Continuity
Continuity advertising is a strategy to keep current customers using a particular product
...

Brand Switching
Companies adopt brand switching as an objective when they want customers to switch from
competitors' brands to their brands
...

Switchback
Companies subscribe to this advertising objective when they want to get back former users of their
product brand
...

Advertising Budget
Once an advertising objective has been selected, companies must then set an advertising budget for
each product
...
Overall, the advertising budget should be established
so as to be congruent with overall company objectives
...

Advertising Frequency
Advertising frequency refers to the number of times an advertisement is repeated during a given
time period to promote a product's name, message, and other important information
...

Competition and Clutter
Highly competitive product markets, such as the soft-drink industry, require higher advertising
budgets just to stay even with competitors
...
Examples abound of companies that spend
millions of dollars on advertising in order to be key players in their respective industries (e
...
, Coca Cola and
General Motors)
...
Increasing
market share normally requires a large advertising budget because a company's competitors counterattack

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with their own advertising blitz
...

Product Differentiation
How customers perceive products is also important to the budget-setting process
...
For example, product differentiation might be necessary when a new laundry detergent is
advertised: Since so many brands of detergent already exist, an aggressive advertising campaign would be
required
...
The advertising budget is higher in order to pay for the
additional advertising
...
As a product moves through the product life cycle, fewer and fewer advertising resources are
needed because the product has become known and has developed an established buyer base
...

Selecting the Right Advertising Approach
Once a company decides what type of specific advertising campaign it wants to use, it must decide
what approach should carry the message
...

Frequency
Frequency refers to the average number of times that an average consumer is exposed to the
advertising campaign
...
For example, a company might want to have the average consumer exposed to the message at
least six times during the advertising campaign
...
The more exposure a company desires for its product, the more expensive the advertising
campaign
...

Media Impact
Media impact generally refers to how effective advertising will be through the various media outlets
(e
...
, television, Internet, print)
...
For example, a company promoting a new laundry detergent
might fare better with television commercials rather than simple print ads because more consumers are
likely to see the television commercial
...
Before any money is spent on any advertising media, a thorough analysis is done of each one's
strengths and weaknesses in comparison to the cost
...

Media Timing
Another major consideration for any company engaging in an advertising campaign is when to run
the advertisements
...
The other major consideration for a company is whether it wants to employ a continuous or
pulsing pattern of advertisements
...
The advantage of this tactic is that an advertising campaign can run longer and might
provide more exposure over time
...
Pulsing
indicates that advertisements will be scheduled in a disproportionate manner within a given time frame
...
The advantage with the pulsing strategy is twofold
...

Reach
Reach refers to the percentage of customers in the target market who are exposed to the advertising
campaign for a given time period
...
The goal is to be as close to 100 percent as possible, because the more
the target audience is exposed to the message, the higher the chance of future sales
...
During debates about the banning of cigarette advertising, a common claim
from cigarette manufacturers was that cigarette advertising does not encourage people to smoke who would
not otherwise
...

According to many media sources, the past experience and state of mind of the person subjected to
advertising may determine the impact that advertising has
...

Public perception of the medium
As advertising and marketing efforts become increasingly ubiquitous in modern Western societies,
the industry has come under criticism of culture jamming which criticizes the media and consumerism using
advertising's own techniques
...
Recognizing the social impact of
advertising, Media-watch-uk, a British special interest group, works to educate consumers about how they
can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators
...
The award-winning book, Made You Look How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know, by
former Media-watch (a feminist organisation founded by Ann Simonton not linked to media-watch-uk)
president Shari Graydon, provides context for these issues for young readers
...

This kind of tax would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a public nuisance
...
Florida
enacted such a tax in 1987 but was forced to repeal it after six months, as a result of a concerted effort by national commercial
interests, which withdrew planned conventions, causing major losses to the tourism industry, and cancelled advertising, causing a
loss of 12 million dollars to the broadcast industry alone
...

Any negative information on a company or its products or operations often results in pressures from the
company to withdraw such information lines, threatening to cut their ads
...
The bigger both companies are, the bigger
their relation gets, maximizing control over single information
...


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Another indirect effect of advertising is to modify the very nature of the communication media where it is
shown
...
The clearest example is television, where this means trying to
make the public stay for a long time and in a mental state that encourages spectators not to switch the
channel through the ads
...
These make for much easier emotional jumps to ads, which can
become more entertaining than regular shows
...

Future

With the dawn of the Internet have come many new advertising opportunities
...

Each year, greater sums are paid to obtain a commercial spot during super sporting events like cricket and
football championships
...

Another problem is people recording shows on DVRs (ex
...
These devices allow users to record the
programs for later viewing enabling them to fast forward through commercials
...

However, the fact that these sets are sold, means that the company will additionally receive profits from the
sales of these sets
...

Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advert enough that they
wish to watch it later or show a friend
...


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LESSON 39

MEDIA THEORIES
The term media theory refers to a model that explains the relationship between media and social
reality
...

The criticism media does-on individuals, business sector and the governments, pinches many in many ways
...

How media is seen, controlled and dealt with, will be outlined in the following paragraphs through the study
of four distinct theories which generally command on media behaviour and its outlook in different societies
...
The media was forced to remain under state
control
...









Direct governmental control of the media
...

No printing that could undermine the established authority
No offense to existing political set up
The government may punish anyone who questions the state's ideology
...

Registration of the media by the state
...

Libertarian Theory
This is just in contrast to the authoritarian approach to media
...
Its prominent features go like this:








Competitive exposure of alternative viewpoints
...

There is no explicit connection between the government and the media
...

The protection of dignity, reputation, property, privacy, moral development of individuals, groups,
minorities, evens the security of the state no infringement accepted from media
...
The ethics in multicultural or pluralistic societies
vary from place to place; hence there is always complaint against the media of each other’s society
...
The media was tied to overall communist ideas and defined in a very different
way
...

The media is collective agitator, propagandist and educator in the building of communism
...

The government is superior to the media institutions
...

Social Responsibility Theory
This theory keeps certain areas free for the Press but at the same time puts lot of responsibility on
media
...
The sense of responsibility has been emphasized more in this theory as compared
to any other
...
The journalist is accountable to his audience / readers
...

In their view if people's knowledge, understandings, capabilities, and actions are manufactured, it
simultaneously follows that they can be developed, improved, and individualized in proper (idealdemocratic) circumstances
...

Because of new developments, the relationship among the state, private sectors, markets, and civil society
profoundly changed during the 1980s
...

A basic question is: Who gave media the right to do the things they do?
Like to investigate wrongdoings by public officials, to delve into the private lives of public figures and to
report on the shortcomings of government and institutions are all forms of the criticism media face all over
the world
...


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LESSON 41

NEW MEDIA IN MASS COMMUNICATION
New Media is a term that describes traditional forms of media that have been transformed by
advancements in digital technology and digital computing
...
This relationship of old to
new media is concerned with transformations of the apparatus (social machine) of language, from more
basic forms of oral communication to the establishment of literacy, and from literacy to the digital
adaptation of speech
...

What is classed as New Media?
 Web Sites including Blogs
 Email
 CD/DVD
 Electronic kiosks
 Virtual worlds
 Interactive Television
 Internet Telephony
 Mobile
 Pod-cast
 Hypertext Fiction
Technology forcing changes
Newspapers were settled in their own way of communication by the start of the 20th century
...
When TV tried to outplay radio by showing images of distant event, radio started working
hard on new formats of music, light discussion and telling jokes (FM style)
...

On-line communication
Since the Internet was transformed into a mass medium, around the mid-90s, journalists and media
theoreticians have tried to define what online journalism is
...

Unlike other media, which are greatly defined by their form (paper, sound, picture), online media are not
clear about their form
...
This means that the instrument we use to receive information considerably affects how it is imparted
...

Newspapers are defined in the printing house and are such regardless of who reads them and where
...

The fact that more and more people are using mobile phones (how many people do you know that do not
have them and for what reason do they not have them) means that the information market is moving to this

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side and that it is only a question of technological and social compromise how quickly these devices will
surpass short text messages in favor of audio/video contents broadcast in real time
...
Even the fact that behind the blogs stand a journalist does not mean that the product
of his observations posted on the Internet is journalism
...
Experience teaches us that no good result comes out of
something which, with the exception of the author, is not read/seen/heard before it is published/broadcast
by anyone else, or at least no one with the power to stop or delay it being published/broadcast if necessary
...
With the wholehearted help of legislation, or lack of it,
new media cultivate this jungle
...
This would entail significant shortening of the article, emphasizing key words, breaking it up into
sections connected with hyperlinks (which would not have to be written all over if they already exist on the
net)
...
The result is
that what we see on the net and what we call online journalism is actually only a projection of the old media,
with the only contribution being a technological one
...
The
content is the same
...
After all, at the
beginning of the 90s major media outlets had their own Tele-fax editions, for subscribers living far away
who had no patience for air distribution
...

These changes in distribution have not been accompanied sufficiently by changes in journalistic expression
...
A long newsletter that you
receive by electronic mail is not “comfortable” to read, but nothing prevents the author from creating it that
way and sending it out
...
This, instead of being an advantage,
becomes their disadvantage
...
While the new level of communication between customers and those
providing any kind of service is generally beneficial, it also allows for more methods by which unhappy
consumers may disproportionately voice their concerns, in relation to their actual overall sampling size
amongst consumers as a whole
...
As New Media forms are almost exclusively digital in nature, the cost of initial
establishment and then the upkeep of the equipment, resources, and manpower needed may pose a
significant problem for smaller businesses
...


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LESSON 41

GLOBALIZATION OF MEDIA
Globalization is a buzz word these days
...
So strong is the
thrust for expansionism by the world corporate sectors that governments and other international
organizations like the UNO etc also at times seem to be only working for the cause of this sector
...
The debate is raging high
...

Here below we will examine various aspects of the globalization of media
...
In
the first place, the role of telecommunication is critical to globalize production strategies
...
Furthermore, content (or “copyright”) industries, such as
television, music, video, film and the Internet, directly through advertising and indirectly through the
promotion of consumerist and individualistic lifestyles, are at the forefront of cultural preparation for
consumerism, an essential precondition and accompaniment to the opening up of new markets for a huge
variety of products, and to the breaking down of cultural and other barriers
...
This is, of course, partly the flip side of media and
communications as a means of opening new markets and softening up cultures for consumerism, although
there is more to it than that
...

Dominance of TNCs backed by governments
Analyzing the effects of many historic, economic and political factors to have influenced the most
important characteristics of globalization of media systems in the last 15 years, and that what can be
observed is a domination of large countries and powerful transnational companies (TNC) which, according
to the effects of market laws, also affect the sphere of media industry and media systems
...

Although, in their opinion, global media systems do not develop linearly in this direction, their trend is,
gradually and more or less, to become a part of the process of media centralization spearheaded by some
30 TNCs with the aim of taking control over the media
...

After providing a short historic overview of the appearance and development of the first massive medium –
press – and its historic predecessors, from early times gazettes, pamphlets, annals, to the first newspaper
editions in today’s meaning, all the way to the appearance of the first electronic medium and development

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of television and internet experts analyze the dynamics of the global media market and explain the strategy
and funding of major media corporations, such as Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, and News
Corporation, which primarily have big film and television productions
...

(For example, Time Warner, the biggest media corporation, had an income of close to $25 billion, Disney
had $24 billion, and News Corporation had $10 billion)
...
e
...

(The biggest media corporation, Time Warner, was created in 1989 as a result of a merger between Time
Incorporated and Warner Communications Incorporated)
...

It is precisely economic market relations – which guide transnational companies, after integrating with one
another in the above two ways, to ruthlessly enter national and international arenas –that have a fatal affect
on the character and structure of media programs
...

The famous saying that the media create the culture of entertainment is now at work
...

Poor and less developed regions in terms of information and communications experience a particularly big
effect on this character of the modern media
...

IMF blamed
Edward S
...
McChesney, the two American university professors, say all
these processes in media systems, along with countries which TNC and their influences originate from, are
also supported by economic giants such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which, through some of
its programs, facilitates media penetration of the great powers into underdeveloped countries
...

Hapless media standardization
Standardization of media, first of all through the structure and content of programs in all types of
media, may influence the particularity and sustainability of authentic characteristics of national cultures
which succumb to the consumer spirit of the media industry conglomerate
...
Instead of civil journalism, what is
present is new journalism with products which constitute commodities, with journalists who balance among
neutrality, hushing up truth and a media system insensitive to the local and the regional needs
...
Consequently, decentralization of global media and
economic giants is possible through concentration of alternative media markets
...


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LESSON 42

MEDIA MERGENCE
Every time a new technology is introduced in the sphere of mass media and a new media organ is
created, there appears a situation where new form of mass communication gets its source material from the
media organs already in vogue
...
Hardly there has been a situation when a new technology
has also brought altogether new topics to be talked about with the help of new science
...

From Print to Electronic Amalgamation
Print media had been enjoying a unique distinction in the society for almost four hundred years
when in the first quarter of the 20th century radio was introduced on the basis of electromagnetic waves
technology
...

Radio brought with it listening pleasure – music, talks and news etc
...
More or less it was dealing with
the same content people had been familiar with over the years because of print media
...
Contents were the same
...

Radio, TV mergence
Although TV was also based on radio wave technology, the carrying of images through
electromagnetic waves gave it a unique distinction and in the eyes of common people TV has been a
different entity
...
The changes were only due to
presence of images
...
This led to a marriage between
the analog and digital technologies and it is here that the subject of mergence of media has emerged
...

In coming years you would be able to use your computer as TV and if you desire, TV set could also be used
as computer because most TV sets manufactured after 2006, or so, would carry a chip which would enable
decoding of messages transmitted through digital technology
...
Television shows will have other types of media like text
merged into them, and World Wide Web pages will begin to be temporal entities that tell a story
...
Also, to say that the two converge it is not
enough to say that you will be able to watch television on your computer-- that merely means that television
content is a sub-set of computer content and is already possible today
...


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When we say that the media will not converge, we mean that television shows and world wide web content
will remain distinct media forms, and that you will use your television for watching television shows, and
your computer to view and browse web content
...

People will cease distinguishing between computers and televisions:
The second topic for the debate will be that the computers and televisions as devices will merge
...
This "viewer" will come in different sizes and
shapes, but will be thought of as one item, just like little TVs and big TVs in people's minds are considered
one type of device
...
In other words, if you were at your desk working on a "viewer" and a friend called up telling you to
check out a show, you would just switch the "viewer" to that show, rather than going into another room to
find a "TV viewer"
...
Doing research and browsing
the web will be done on a computer, and watching shows and movies will be done on a television
...
There are always extreme points
in the adoption of technology
...

Nature of program remains a question
On account of this, the debate will center on what functionality the majority of televisions and
computers will have, and what types of media will be broadcast for a majority of broadcast hours
...

Economic reasons
Media convergence is an economic strategy in which communications companies seek financial
benefit by making the various media properties they own work together
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
The strategy allows companies to reduce labour,
administrative and material costs, to use the same media content across several media outlets, to attract
increased advertising by providing advertisers with package deals and one-stop shopping for a number of
media platforms, and to increase brand recognition and brand loyalty among audiences through crosspromotion and cross-selling
...

DI
Digital Cinemas
CINEMA
People have become increasingly interested in studying new aesthetic forms that have emerged in response
to the potentials of digital media
...
Digital cinema can refer to
many different things, ranging from the use of digital cameras in film production or digital projection in film
exhibition to the use of the web as a delivery system for films
...


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SDTV
Standard digital television
HDTV
High definition television

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LESSON 43

MASS MEDIA IN PRESENT AGE
Books
Newspapers
Magazines
Radio
Film
Television
Internet
All organs are surviving, no one wiped out, everyone has a role and its own audience/readers/users
...

Books – still a charm
 Fiction
 Science
 Poetry
 Children / women
 Travelogue
 Albums / stamp collections
 Text books
 Politics
 Economics
 Medicine
 History
 Dictionaries
 E-books
In descending order of number of new titles per year, as of 1996
...

2
...

4
...

6
...

8
...

10
...

TV

Flat screen, LDCs, Plazma,digital, IPT, channels increasing
...
All mass com organs intact only fluctuation none died
...


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LESSON 44

CRITICISM ON MEDIA
Mass media has been having its influence on societies in a number of ways
...
People who resist
change in lifestyle and social norms are not seeing the mass media as doing more service to society as it is
proving destructive
...
Here below we will examine what
areas of mass communication are target of general criticism
...

Better part of a story is falling victim to gate-keepers or those who filter facts before passing them on to
common people
...
Media hardly believe, or make an effort, to tell the whole truth about any
matter of general interest
...

Exaggerates
It has become a habit of media to blow up out of proportion some issues of sensitive nature which
creates so much panic among the people (authorities) who than instead finding a lasting solution of those
issues just try to hush up the matters
...

Sensationalize
Perhaps the most commonly leveled charge against media is its chronic approach to sensationalize
matters of routine life
...
A
small tip from any person around may make a media person to build a spicy story which may attract
common people
...

Film world and leading sportspersons are always worried as media would quickly fabricate a story on finding
a small bit of something like shaking hands with certain people by a film star; - think if a top police officer
inviting a noted film personality over a cup of tea – a storm is likely to be made in the media
...
Bold pictures of women in the name of esthetics, out of proportion images of
sportspersons – again women especially, behaviour of characters in a radio or TV drama, dances in films
and smoking and drinking actions – all have invited severe disapproval of common people who strongly
argue that such an attitude of media is hurting the cultural norms and the family set up
...
Certain music
is not liked to be played at family gatherings and there is always uproar when an offensive or bold billboard
appears on a busy thoroughfare
...
Siding with political parties, or showing despise to
certain government functionaries, at times persons like ministers – is a common sight
...
The media bias some time is
visible on regional, ethnic and linguistic grounds only damaging a society rather than bringing people closer
...
Media is under fire all across the world for selling space to interest
groups-political people in the developing countries and the economic interests in the advanced countries
...
With huge money given to media
by way of, generally speaking, advertisements are one way of molding media in the favour of rich
...
Land grabbers, tax evaders and the ones misappropriating authority can easily gag media with
currency wads
...
Large part of media blatantly refutes to follow ethics which may cause intense pain to common
people
...
Not only this, some headlines which
describe a crime in most horrible way also leave a mark on your mind which remains occupied by the ugly
side of the event which could have been easily avoided had media followed professional way of putting
forward the matter
...
Media for its personal
interest keep peeping into the private life affairs of famous people and report matters to public which may
ruin life of the stars
...
Media does not
hesitate in playing up their images which look highly offensive if put on newspapers or magazines pages, no
matter those poses were meant for a momentary demand for certain actions during a shoot of feature films
or even a commercial camerawork
...
At times autocratic governments
find no way but get blackmailed by popular media
...


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LESSON 45

RECAP
What is photography?
Method of recording permanent images by light on to a chemically sensitive material is called
photography
...

Stop-Action Photography
E
...
Marey, the painter Thomas Eakins, and Eadweard Muybridge all devised means for making
stop-action photographs that demonstrated the gap between what the mind thinks it sees and what the eye
actually perceives
...

Start in unbelievable fashion
It started with a $25,000 bet, in 1877 that was a lot of money
...
Some people argued
that a galloping horse had all four feet off of the ground at the same time at some point;
others said this would be impossible
...
Or, maybe,
depending on your belief, just fast enough that you could see what you wanted to
...

In an effort to settle the issue once and for all an experiment was set up in which a rapid sequence of
photos was taken of a running horse
...
But, in doing this
experiment they found out something else — something that becomes obvious from the illustrations below
...
That discovery
would soon make that $25,000 look like pocket change
...

1895

Lumière brothers, France, created the first projection device, the Cinematograph
...
A
nickel was charged for admission, and the theater was called the nickelodeon
...

The American Edwin S
...
His subject matter tended
toward depictions of modern life; his Life of an American Fireman (1902) and The Great Train Robbery (1903)
are among the first works to use editing as well as acting and stagecraft to tell their stories
...

Spoken dialogue was successfully introduced in The Jazz Singer
...

The Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences was formed and began an annual awards
ceremony
...


Measures taken by the Film industry to beat Television
 Stereophonic sound system was introduced
...

 Introduction of glamour in movies
...

Motion Picture/Film in South Asia
 The Lumier Brothers of France exhibited their short films in December 1895 at Grande Cafe,
Paris
...

 A package of 6 films
...

 1913-1930s
- 200 films were produced
...

In Calcutta, Hira lal Sen photographed scenes from some of the plays at the Classic Theatre
...

Mohini Bhasmasur (1914), significant for introducing the first woman to act before the cameras – Kamala
bai Gokhale
...

Legends of South Asian Film Industry
V
...

The Daughter of Today
- Premier Film Company
- Released in: 1924
- The first ever silent film from Punjab
- Actors: A
...
Kardar, Wilayat Begum, M
...
K
...

Alam Ara
- Inaugural Urdu/Hindi Indo-Pak feature film
- Imperial Film Company
- Urdu/Hindi (124 minutes; black & white)
- Released on: Saturday, March 14, 1931 (Capital cinema Lahore)
- Actors: Zubaida (Alam Ara), Master Vitthal (Adil), J
...
V
...
Irani Heer Ranjha
- First ever Punjabi feature film
- Realesed in: 1932
- Actors: Anwari Begum, Rafiq Ghazniv, Gul Hameed, Lala Yaqoob, M
...

Khazanchi
- Pancholi Art Pictures
- Released in: 1941
- Music director: Master Ghulam Haidar
- Introduced baby Noor Jehan as playback singer
...
(Bombay-Lahore)
- Urdu/Hindi
- Realesed in: 1946
- Actors: Noor Jehan, Surender, Surayya, Zahoor Raja, Leela Mishra, Anwari Begum, Bhudo Anvari,
Murad
...
(followed by
Zubaida Khanum (in the 50s) and Madam Noor Jehan (from 40s-90s), respectively)
...


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Shukat Hussain Rizvi, Director
- J U G N U, last Big "Pakistani" film before partition
- Shoukat Arts Productions
- Urdu/Hindi
- Released in: 1946
- Actors:
Yousaf Khan (Dilip Kumar), Noor Jahan
- Singers:
Madam Noor Jehan, Mohammad Rafi
Teri Yaad
- Released on: Saturday, August 7, 1948
Phairay
- Producer and Director: Nazir
- Music: G
...
Chishti
Changes Introduced by Films
 Entertainment
...

 Jobs in thousands for acting, direction, music, sets, lighting, recording, cinematography etc
...

 Manifested culture and in return influenced culture – dresses, languages, living style, harmony etc
...

 Boldness, vulgarity, obscenity – the dark side of films
...
In another manner it could be said as the planned dissemination of news,
information, special arguments, and appeals designed to influence the beliefs, thoughts, and actions of a
specific group
...
Harold Lasswell, a pioneer of propaganda studies, defines it
as "the management of collective attitudes by the manipulation of significant symbols
...
Subsequent analysts stressed that propaganda was a
planned and deliberate act of opinion management
...
One such categorization classifies propaganda as:
 White Propaganda
 Grey Propaganda
 Black Propaganda
Radio
Marconi recognized as radio inventor
In 1896 Guglielmo Marconi was awarded what is sometimes recognized as the world's first patent
for radio with British Patent 12039, Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus therefor
...
The same year in
the USA, some key developments in radio's early history were created and patented by Nikola Tesla
...
Some believe this was done to allow the US Government to avoid having to pay the
royalties that were being claimed by Nikola Tesla for use of his patents
...
The
property of radio which did not require transportation of the message drew immense attention of common
people and investors in the field of mass media
...

 Peace time
 War time
Television
Television is the process of capturing photographic images, converting them into electrical
impulses, and then transmitting the signal to a decoding receiver
...

Among the technical developments that have come to dominate our lives, television is surely one of the top
few
...

TV changes some basic concepts
TV is largely responsible for bringing about so many social, cultural and economic changes- and
that too with rapid speed, and is considered as one major factor to help globalize human thinking and
understanding on various matters by fully exploiting all the elements possible in visual communication, or
say broadcasting
...

By 1935, mechanical systems for transmitting black-and-white images were replaced completely by
electronic methods that could generate hundreds of horizontal bands at 30 frames per second
...

Zworykin, a Russian immigrant who first worked for Westinghouse, patented an electronic camera tube
based on the cathode tube
...
Farnsworth and Allen B
...

There are currently 3 main television transmission standards used throughout the world:
NTSC - National Television Standards Committee
...

First used in 1954
...

SECAM - Système Électronique pour Couleur avec Mémoire
...
First used in 1967
...

PAL - Phase Alternating Line
...
Also a 625/50-line
display and alternative of NTSC
...
"
Television in Pakistan
Evening Transmission only
TV broadcast was limit to five hours, from 6 pm to 11 pm with one weekly holiday on Monday
...
Hardly a person would move away till the national anthem was played to mark end of the day’s
transmission
...

Live Broadcast
The most prominent feature of PTV’s early years was the live transmission for it did not have the
recording facilities
...
It was a unique experience for all the directors, producers, performers and the technical staff
...

Many radio artists seemed moving to and fro between radio station and the PTV building next door to accomplish the task of
live transmission and rehearsals
...
1965
The September 1965 war with India was a testing time for the whole nation
...
The PTV Lahore station did the heroics it still gets credit for
...
Nothing more could have excited people
seeing with their own eyes Pakistan Army’s jawans invading Indian posts, destroying them and capturing
enemy’s land across the border
...

PTV goes colored
Though the Islamic conference coverage was very successful, many thought it would have been far
better had it been a colored transmission
...
The day came soon when in 1976
COLOUR TRANSMISSION STARTED on experimental basis
...

Effects of television on society
Television broadcast has broad effects on the society all around the world
...

There are so many angles to see as to what extent TV has brought about changes in daily life of people and
the nations as well
...

 Seeing is believing
 Changes in timings
 Fashion
 Household entity and change in habits
 Increasing general know-how
 Cultural changes and influences
 Institutional transformation
Public Relations
Definition
 Aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group seeking
public attention
...




One of the earliest definitions of PR was coined by Edward Bernays
...
"



According to two American PR professionals Scott M
...
Center, "PR is a
planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible performance based
upon mutual satisfactory two-way communication"
...
The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the
company and its offerings
...

 Formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding
communication with its publics
...

 Developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process
...

Specializations
 Property development & real estate PR
 Retail sector PR
 Agricultural PR
 Food service PR
 Health care PR
 Technology/IT PR
 Public affairs PR
 On-line PR
 Financial/investor relations
 Not-for-profit PR
 Crisis communication PR
Lobby groups
Lobby groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion
...
When a lobby group hides its true purpose and
support base it is known as a front group
...
A typical example would be
the writing of letters to multiple newspaper editors under different names to express an opinion on an issue,
creating the impression of widespread public feeling but being controlled by one central entity
...
While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation
of the facts, "spin" often, though not always, implies, deceptive and/or highly manipulative tactics
...


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Advertising beyond Print Media
Covert advertising
It is embedded in other entertainment media is known as product placement
...
Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith
mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future
...
Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, BMW and Aston-Martin
cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably, Casino Royale
...
Placement of an advertisement on FM
radio costs about as much as an advertisement placed in a metropolitan newspaper
...
Indeed,
many small business consultants believe that an entertaining and informative radio advertising campaign can
be a major asset
...
Indeed, most businesses incorporate a media mix
when attempting to sell their products or services, utilizing radio advertising in concert with print and other
advertising media
...

TV

The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format and
this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events
...
5 million (as of 2006)
...
It
is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant
to the remote broadcast audience
...
Virtual product placement is also possible
...

Advertising Evaluation
Once the advertising campaign is over, companies normally evaluate it compared to the established
goals
...
In order to make this more effective, some companies divide up the
country into regions and run the advertising campaigns only in some areas
...
Depending on the results, a company will modify future
advertising efforts in order to maximize effectiveness
...
Advertising campaigns appear in different
media across a specific time frame
...
The campaign
theme is the central message that will be communicated in the promotional activities
...

Forms of Advertising
Advertising can take a number of forms, including advocacy, comparative, cooperative, and directmail, informational, institutional, outdoor, persuasive, product, reminder, point-of-purchase, and specialty
advertising
...
A company that advertises usually strives to
achieve one of four advertising objectives: trial, continuity, brand switching, and switchback
...

Public perception of the medium
As advertising and marketing efforts become increasingly ubiquitous in modern Western societies,
the industry has come under criticism of culture jamming which criticizes the media and consumerism using
advertising's own techniques
...
Recognizing the social impact of
advertising, Media-watch-uk, a British special interest group, works to educate consumers about how they
can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators
...
The award-winning book, Made You Look How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know, by
former Media-watch (a feminist organisation founded by Ann Simonton not linked to media-watch-uk)
president Shari Graydon, provides context for these issues for young readers
...
Media as an enterprise holds a unique status – from one way it is like an industry which gives its
products and service and earn money but from another way media is supposed to talk about society, people,
attitude, interaction, guidance and the most crucial and sensitive, criticism
...

If media does not perform this function, it is rendered redundant
...

What is classed as New Media?
 Web Sites including Blogs
 Email
 CD/DVD
 Electronic kiosks
 Virtual worlds
 Interactive Television
 Internet Telephony
 Mobile
 Pod-cast
 Hypertext Fiction
Disadvantages in the Use of New Media
While most advertising and marketing agencies have cited the use of New Media as a positive force
in reaching new and old customers alike, a prevalent concern amongst companies that wish to remain
competitive in today's digital markets is the rapid rate at which new media changes, and can be changed
from any number of sources
...

Another negative result of the implementation of new media advertising and marketing is generally regarded
as being cost-related
...
It has been said that in this way, the worldwide trend towards
reliance on New Media for such means may very well be a move towards further corporate globalization,
and the downfall of smaller businesses that can't compete with such new technological means
...
It is more heard in the arena of economics where
transnational corporations are widening their scope of activities and earning massively
...
The wave
of globalization is not without criticism such as it is designed to make a few rich and the rest poor not only
in the financial sense but also culturally
...

Media Mergence
Every time a new technology is introduced in the sphere of mass media and a new media organ is
created, there appears a situation where new form of mass communication gets its source material from the
media organs already in vogue
...
Hardly there has been a situation when a new technology
has also brought altogether new topics to be talked about with the help of new science
...
It was first time that the people experienced a wireless communication at massive scale
...
But the nature of contents in news, talk
shows, discussions, educational programmes and comments was not new
...
The only change was
the new technology
...
So one can say that radio was a mergence of print and
electronic media as far content were concerned
...

But on the content side, TV picked many ideas from radio formats like group discussions, musical
programmes, and commentary on sporting events, and presentation of news
...

TV and computer getting one - IPT (Internet protocol TV)
In the third quarter of the 20th century scientists were successful in using the digital technology for
carrying contents which were earlier carried only through analog techniques
...

This new combination is exclusive in the sense that it not only brings the contents of sound and images
together and all the formats of programme remain intact, it at the same time brings the two technologies at
one point
...

So, when we say that the media will converge, we mean that current television shows will merge into a
hybrid with World Wide Web style content
...
Another
way of looking at this is that both your television and your computer will be running a similar super browser
which will allow the same content to be viewed on both devices
...
For the two to truly converge the
content that can be received by both devices should be the same
...
While both media types may have evolved, they will
remain different from one another

---