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NOTES 3
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CHAPTER 5
BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
There are several approaches in the study of criminology under the positivist school
of criminology
...

Determinism assigns the causes of crimes to predetermined individual or
environmental factors (Del Carmen and Trulson, 2006)
...
While some have
already developed into another set of theories, some have been the bases of more
recent theories, and others may have already been discredited due to discovery of new
facts that proved such theories to be false
...
Still, it is
important to study the evolution of the theories of crime causation in order to better
understand how the modern explanations of the causes of crime came about
...

BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
This refers to the set of theories that point to physical, physiological and other
natural factors as the causes for the commission of crimes of certain individuals
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PHYSIOGNOMY
Physiognomy is the study of facial features and their relation to human behavior
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1) GIAMBATISTA DELA PORTA (1535-1615)

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Giambatista Dela Porta was an Italian physician who founded the school of
human physiognomy
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2) JOHANN KASPAR LAVATER (1741-1801)
Lavater is a Swiss theologian who supported the belief of Dela Porta regarding
facial features
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PHRENOLOGY, CRANIOLOGY OR CRANIOSCOPY
It originated from Greek: “mind”; and logos, “knowledge”
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Phrenology is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the
mind, and the certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules
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1) FRANZ JOSEPH GALL
Gall is a German neuroanatomist and physiologist who developed
cranioscopy
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It has certain
similarities to another field of study called phrenology, the study that deals with the
relationship between the skull and human behavior
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2) JOHANN KASPAR SPURZHEIM
Spurzheim was a German phrenologist who worked as assistant to Franz Joseph
Gall
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PHYSIOLOGY OR SOMATOTYPE
Physiology or somatotype school of criminology refers to the study of the body
build of a person in relation to his temperament and personality and the type of offense
he is most prone to commit
...
Some books
also refer to this as somatology and body-type theories
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Ernst Kretschmer’s Physique Theory
a
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They may commit petty theft
and fraud
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Athletic type – those who are muscular and strong
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c
...
They tend to commit
deception, fraud and violence
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Dysplastic or Mixed Type – those who are less clear evident having any
predominant type
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2) WILLIAM HERBERT SHELDON’ s Somatotype Theory (1898-1977)
William Herbert Sheldon was an American psychologist who was another follower
of somatotype school of criminology
...
He named his somatotypes after
the three germ layers of embryonic development: the endoderm, that develops into the
digestive tract, the mesoderm, that is to become muscle, heart and blood vessels, and
the ectoderm that is form the nervous system
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Ectomorphic body type is characterized by long arms and legs and a short
upper body and narrow shoulders, and supposedly has a higher proportion of
nervous tissue
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Ectomorphs usually have
a very low fat storage
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Ectomorphs are tall and thin and less social and more intellectual than the
other types
b
...
They have large bones, solid torso
combined with low fat levels
...
Mesomorphs have well-developed muscles and an athletic
appearance
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c
...
They have a wide waist and a
large bone structure
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They are known for lethargic behavior rendering them unlikely to commit
violent crimes and more willing to engage in less strenuous criminal activities
such as fencing stolen property
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Studies have been
conducted, and are still being conducted, as to the relationship of genetics to criminality
...
These studies strengthen
the theory that since criminal characteristics can be inherited, children of criminal
parents have a greater chance of becoming criminals themselves
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Study of Kallilkak Family Tree
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This study was conducted by Henry Herbert Goddard, a prominent
American psychologist and eugenicist in the early 20th century
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He traced the descendants of Martin Kallikak from each of his two wives and
found a distinct difference in terms of the quality of lives of his descendants
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Most of the
descendants from the feeble-minded woman turned out to be feeble-minded also,
epileptics, unhealthy and criminals, while most of those from his first wife were normal and
no one became a criminal
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Study of Juke Family Tree
This view was expounded in The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and
Heredity (Richard Dugdale, 1875), a study of a rural clan that “over seven generations
produced 1,200 bastards, beggars, murderers, prostitutes, thieves and syphilitics
...
”
Dugdale believed that bad environment caused their degeneracy and could be
reversed over time
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Study of Sir Jonathan Edwards Family Tree
Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period
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on the other
hand, many become presidents of the United States, governor and member of the
Supreme Court, famous writers, preachers and teachers
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Study of Charles Buckman Goring (1870-1919)
Charles Goring was an English physician and psychiatrist who published book
entitled, The English convict
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From the findings of his studies, he was a firm believer that criminal traits can be passed
from parents to offspring through the genes
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PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
This refers to the theories that attribute criminal behavior of individuals to
psychological factors, such as emotional and mental problems
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This theory was formed by Sigmund Freud concerning human personality and
crimes
...
It emphasized childhood
experiences as critically important in shaping adult personality
...

The Structure of Personality/Tripartite Personality
The structure of personality is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and
the super ego
...

a
...
Freud believed that the id is based on
the pleasure principle, i
...
it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration
for the reality of the situation
...
Freud called
the id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective
experience and has no knowledge of objective reality
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Ego – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop
...
The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes
hurt us, so the id must be constrained (reality principle)
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It can be viewed as our
“sense of time and place”
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Superego (Conscience of Man) – the superego develops during the Phallic Stage
as a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents
...
Superego internalizes societal and
parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right” and “wrong” behavior
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Imbalance or disharmony may make the individual neurotic
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Trait Theory
Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along a continuum of various
personality characteristics
...
Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual,
describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling
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Common Traits – these are personality traits that are shared by most members of
a particular culture
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Individual Traits – these are personality traits that define a person’s unique
individual quality
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Cardinal Traits – these are personality traits that are so basic that all person’s
activities relate to it
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Allport said that only few people
have cardinal traits
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Central Traits – these are the core traits that characterize an individual’s
personality
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They form the building blocks of our personalities
...
Secondary Traits – these are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less
generalized and far less enduring that affect our behaviors in specific
circumstances
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a
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b
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c
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Four Types of Temperament are:
Melancholic – sad, gloomy
Choleric – hot-tempered, irritable
Phlegmatic – sluggish, calm
Sanguine – cheerful, hopeful

CHAPTER 6
SOCIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
Sociological Theories and Studies
Sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come in
contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct
...
Some of the proponents of
sociological determinism are presented, as well as brief explanations of their theories
...
He was responsible for
establishing the first Department of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895
...
He died on November 15, 1917
...
It was Durkheim who stated that crime is a normal part of society, just like birth
and death and that for as long as humans continue to exist and live with each other,
crimes will continue to occur
...
Anomie is characterized by disorder due to lack of common
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values shared by individuals, lack of respect for authority and lack of appreciation for
what is acceptable and not acceptable in society
...
He was a sociologist
and psychologist who worked as a magistrate in France
...
He died on May 13, 1904 in Paris, France
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According to
this theory, individuals imitate the behavior of other individuals based on the degree of
their association with these other individuals and it is the inferior or the weak who tend to
imitate the superior or the strong
...

Cartographic School of Criminology (ADOLPHE QUETELET and ANDRE MICHAEL GUERRY)
Quetelet and Guerry, both statisticians, are credited for founding what is known
as the Cartographic School of Criminology
...
The cartographic school of criminology made use of social
statistical data such as population, age, gender, occupation, religious affiliations and
social economic status and studies their influences and relationship to criminality
...


MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
Environmental factors, such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality of
teaching in the school, influences of peers and friends, conditions of the neighborhood
and economic and other societal factors are believed to be contributory to crime and
criminal behavior
...
These theories have been grouped together and labeled based on the
commonality of the factors believed to have caused the commission of the crime
...
Under each groups are sub-theories that give further
explanations
...
Sometimes, it is also called
social environment
...
These factors in society are believed
to affect behavior and attitudes of individuals which in turn contribute to their commission
of crimes
...

1
...
According to this theory, crimes in
the urban areas are more prevalent because residents have impersonal relationships with
each other
...
Also, there is higher level of turn-over of residents,
which make it even more difficult to establish close ties
...

Increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are also very
common in disorganized communities
...
There also make it difficult for parents to exert influence on their children to stay
in school, which accounts for the high drop-out rate and increased number out-of-school
youths
...
And because many youths are not able to finish school, these same youths
even add to the problem of unemployment
...

All these factors contribute to the behavior and attitude of an individual and when
combined with each other, may push him into becoming involved in criminal activities
...
2
...
These negative feelings are brought about their inability to
have, possess and achieve their desires in life, whether material and non-material things
...
Some people, such as the rich, the middleclass, the educated, and the employed have the means to get or realized what they
want because they have the money to do so
...
This
deprivation is the source of the strain
...
They feel that this is the only way to survive
...
3
...
Culture refers
to the system of values and meanings shared by a group of individuals including the
embodiment of those values and meanings in a material object
...

According to this theory, because people in the lower class feel isolated due
extreme deprivation or poverty, they tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules
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and values
...

This theory combines some elements of both social disorganization theory and
strain theory
...
These theories cite
interaction with people and experiences and exposure to different elements in the
environment as the primary factors in criminality
...

1
...
This theory
states that criminality, just like any other behavior, can be learned through socialization
...
Thus tends to explain why members of the same are engaged in the same illegal
activities, such as robbery and drug pushing
...

1
...
Thus, the word “reinforcement” is in the name
...
Conversely, a behavior will be
extinguished if the individual was punished for the doing of such action
...
On the other hand, an act, when punished, will
be avoided
...
3 NEUTRALIZATION THEORY
This was introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes, both modern
criminologists based in Chicago
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wikipedia
...
In simple words, people know when they are doing something
wrong, however, they rationalize and justify their actions
...
A person is aware that what he is about to do is wrong, but he neutralizes
this by convincing himself that it is not wrong and enumerating his justifications
...
The word drift is used to refer to the condition
wherein a person, who is usually good, sometimes “drift” to doing something bad
...
This theory is more commonly called labeling theory
...
He then starts
regarding himself as such and this would be reflected through his actions
...
In the Philippines, children
or minors caught in violation of the law are called children in conflict with the law,
replacing the old term, minor or youth offender
...
The social
control being referred to are the agencies of social control, such as family, school, religion
or church, government and laws and other identified authorities in society
...
In contrast, when these are weak and ineffective, then criminal
behavior will be difficult to control or contain
...

1
...
In his findings, he stated that inner and outer containments help
prevent juvenile offending
...
Outer containments include institutions
such as the family (Barkan, 2006)
...
Both the inner and outer containments are important
factors in a person’s decision
...
It has been said that a person who has a positive self-concept or high self-esteem
is not likely to be influenced into doing immoral and illegal things
...

Tolerance for frustration refers to the person’s ability to cope with personal
problems and find solutions
...
For example, they are the ones who resort
to alcoholism and drugs, which in turn can result to aggressive behavior
...

1
...
this theory views
crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds to social institutions (Barkan, 2006)
...

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Attachment refers to the degree to which individuals care about the opinions of
others (Barkan, 2006)
...
For example, a person who does not want to hurt or
disappoint his parents would not to do something that would bring pain, embarrassment
and disappointment to his family
...

Commitment refers to an individual’s investment of energy and emotion in
conventional pursuits, such as getting a good education (Barkan, 2006)
...
Because he is committed to his
ambition, he would be less likely to get involved in illegal activities because this might
derail his plans for his life
...
A person who is committed to his ambition in life is more likely to
be deeply-involved with the activities that would lead to the achievement of his plans
...
The same reasoning is applied for out-of-school youths
...
To counter this, programs are being sponsored by the local government unit,
such as sports tournaments, to divert their attention from alcohol, illegal drugs and
gambling
...
A person who accepts the social norms is more likely to conform to them
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CHAPTER 7
VICTIMOLOGY
Traditionally, criminology is focused on the individual who perpetrated the crime,
the criminal
...
This approach involves the study of the
victims of crimes and it is called victimology
...

BRIEF HISTORY OF VICTIMOLOGY
It was Benjamin Mendelsohn who coined the term “victimology” in the 1940’s
...
He distributed the manuscript among medico-legal experts in
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1946 when he delivered one of the first formal speechless on the subject of victimology
in Romania (Burgess, 2010)
...
He devised his typology according to the degree of
responsibility of the victim for his victimization
...
Others refer to him
as the father of victimology, however, other textbooks credit Mendelsohn
...
He wrote an article
called “The Criminal and His Victim”, focusing on the interaction between criminals and
his victims, and published it in 1941
...

The first textbook written about victims was published in 1968 and was authored
by Stephen Schafer
...
He
later also taught at the Florida State University and Northeastern University, both in the
United States of America, where he became a professor in criminal justice
...
He also wrote a book, entitled “The Victim and His Criminal”
...

It is also defined as the scientific study of the physical, emotional and financial
harm people suffer because of illegal activities (Karmen, 2010)
...

In simple terms, victimology tries to answer the following questions: what are the
reasons a person becomes a victim, why are certain people victimized more than the
rest, what makes a person a target of offenders, and how does a person contribute to
becoming a victim?
VICTIM
A victim is the person to whom the crime was committed
...
Also, victims can either be direct or primary
victims, or indirect or secondary victims (Karmen, 2010)
...
Victims of
rape, theft, robbery, physical injuries are some examples of direct or primary victims
...
Such is the
case in the crimes of murder or homicides
...
Victim typology,
then, refers to the classification of victims based on the type of crimes usually committed
or are likely to be committed against them based on their demographic profile, such as
gender, age, occupation, location of residence or place of work and the like
...

1) VICTIM-OFFENDER RELATIONSHIP
This refers to the relationship of the victim with the offender, and vice versa
...
This relationship could be a factor as to why he was victimized by the
offender
...
On the other hand, females are more likely to be victims of
sexual offenses, and they are more likely to be victimized by people they know, like
relatives, friends and even boyfriends (Siegel, 2004)
...
Because
of carelessness or negligence on the part of the victim, the offender is given the
opportunity to actually commit the crime, such as in cases of theft and robbery
...

3) VICTIM PRECIPITATION AND CULPABILITY OR PROVOCATION
In victim precipitation, the victim significantly contributed to his victimization, while
in culpability or provocation, the victim is considered to be even more responsible for the
crime than the offender himself (Karmen, 2010)
...
When a person
boasts of having money, or shows of his valuables, such jewelry, expensive gadgets and
other similar items, then he puts himself in danger of becoming robbed
...

In cases wherein the victim suffered physical injuries because he was the one who
actually provoked the anger of the offender, which caused the offender to retaliate in a
violent manner, such as when it resulted to a physical fight, then it can be said that the
victim is actually the one responsible
...

In both situations, it is implicit that the victim did something to cause him to
become victimized
...

Resistance may conduct active conduct, like physical retaliation or calling for help, but
it can also include a refusal to meet the demands of an offender (Burgess, 2010)
...
Some victims are strong enough to fight back, such as males with a good body
build or who possess some knowledge and skills in self-defense
...

Some people are also emotionally weaker and give in easily to demands of the
offenders, while some people have a stronger willpower to resist
...
Such person can easily become a victim because of his
personal circumstances, such as age and state of mental health
...
Because of their young age, they can be taken
advantage of by older people, sometimes even by their own family
...
Offenders are able to
commit these crimes against children because of their age and innocence
...
This is why there are laws
that protect the welfare of children because they cannot protect themselves
...
This could be attributed to their lifestyles
...

Young people have the highest victim risk (Siegel, 2004)
...
Sometimes, even the victim himself blames himself
...

However, this can also be a negative thing because when we start blaming the victim,
then it is like we are removing the blame from the offender
...

VICTIM PATTERNS
The age, gender, marital status, educational background, level of intellect,
income, occupation, lifestyle or habits, victim-offender relationships and ecology are
some of the factors that affect victimization risks
...
In terms of income or economic status,

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the poor are most likely to become victims of crimes because they live in areas that are
crime-prone
...
This could be because married people tend
to have more stable routines and less active social lives
...
According to
statistics, victimization occurs more in large, urban areas while victim rates are lower in
rural and suburban areas
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