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MCAT BIOLOGY PRACTICE QUESTIONS: 2025–
2026 500 MOST TESTED CONCEPTS AND
ANSWERS
COVERS HIGH-YIELD MCAT BIOLOGY TOPICS FOR THE 2025–2026 TEST CYCLE, INCLUDING CELLULAR
BIOLOGY, GENETICS, PHYSIOLOGY, AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
...


The chemical reaction that breaks down all the major macro-molecules - CORRECT ANSWER Hydrolysis

What is the strongest type of INTER-molecular bonds? - CORRECT ANSWER -Hydrogen bonds
are the strongest intermolecular bonds
...
Vander wall bonds are the weakest
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What is an ampipathic molecule? give an Example
...

Example: PhoshpoLipid (Phospho=philic,lipid= phobic)

What is a lipid? - CORRECT ANSWER -A lipid is a biological molecule with low solubility in water
...
Liposuction is fat removal
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What are the 6 major groups of lipids? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) fatty acids
...
examples: smelly pine oils, beer hops aroma and
vitamin A
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Composed
from 3 carbon glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acid chains dangling
...


What happens if you add water to an ester group in a Tri-glyceride? How is this reaction rate
increased? - CORRECT ANSWER -Water cleaves the ester bond into an alcohol and a carboxylic/
fatty acid
...


in terms of water solubility, What is important to know about the longer the carbon chain in a Tri glyceride when broken down? - CORRECT ANSWER -longer carbon chains are less water soluble
...


How soluble is a Shorter chain fatty acids? - CORRECT ANSWER -Shorter chain fatty acids are
slightly water soluble
...
Also, e xplain the melting point
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They have a straighter chain and have more van der wall forces, and therefor a higher melting point
...
Also, explain the melting point
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They are not
saturated with Hydrogen
...

At room temperatures unsaturated fatty acids may be oily, like Healthy peanut butter
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Where are phoshpo lipids common? - CORRECT ANSWER Phospholipids are also built on a 3 Carbon backbone
...
the other 2 carbons have carbon chai ns attached by
a ester bond
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Esters have 2 oxygens
...

2) Nonpolar, hydro phobic carbon chain regions face the inside
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- CORRECT ANSWER -glycolipids have 3 carbon backbone with
2 Carbon chains attached by an ester group
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So how do they move through the blood? - CORRECT ANSWER -They are
usually carried by lipoproteins, like HDL or LDL
...

3) LDLs
4) HDLs
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What are proteins made up of? - CORRECT ANSWER-one or more chains of amino acids,
perhaps in a crazy ass arrangement
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Amino acids have 4 parts attached to the
alpha carbon
...
the amino group, which is NH2
2
...
the Carboxylic acid or C O O
the last thing attached to the Carbon is the Hydrogen
...

4) Ratio - have more proteins

Proteoglycans:
1) Special class of glycoprotein
2) Contain extra carbohydrates
3) Structure = protein with one or more glycosaminoglycan chains
...
Cellulose
...

and enzymes like amylase speed it up
...

with the help of nucleases
...

2) Function to:
a) Establish electrochemical gradients
b) Act as cofactors to enable protein function
c) Form matrix compounds in bone and etc

What are enzymes? - CORRECT ANSWER -Typically a protein that Increase the rate of reaction
by lowering activation energy
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -True: Enzyme specificity;
gives the cell more control in regulating chemical reactions

What are saturation kinetics? - CORRECT ANSWER -Since a single enzyme molecule works on
one set of substrate at a time, the reaction rate increases when we add substrate only as long as
there are unoccupied enzyme molecules
...

Enzyme is not used up!

What are the factors that affect enzymatic reactions? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Optimal temp
(rate increases as temp incr until end is denatured)
2) Optimal pH

How do cells regulate enzymes? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Inhibition
2) Production of inactive form, activate only when needed

What are the general types of enzyme inhibition? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Feedback inhibition

2) Chemical inhibition (poisons)

What is feedback inhibition? - CORRECT ANSWER -When the product of a reaction near the end
of a chain of reactions inhibits the function of an enzyme in an earlier reaction of the chain
...

2) Can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration
...

2) Reduces affinity for enzyme to substrate

What is irreversible inhibition? - CORRECT ANSWER-1) Something covalently bonds to active
site
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What is respiration? - CORRECT ANSWER -The E requiring stages of metabolism

Where does glycolysis take place? - CORRECT ANSWER -In the cytosol of the cell

Does glycolysis require oxygen? - CORRECT ANSWER -No

Is glycolysis poisoned by oxygen? - CORRECT ANSWER -No

What is the net ATP produced by glycolysis? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) 2 ATP
2) 2 NADH

3) 2x 3C pyruvates

If oxygen is not present, or the organism is incapable of aerobic respiration, what happens to the
NADHs at the end of glycolysis? - CORRECT ANSWER -Fermentation: The NADHS are oxidized
back to NAD+ in a process that removes 1C from each pyruvate to produce CO2 and
EtOH(yeast)/Lactic acid

If oxygen is present, what happens to the products of glycolysis? - CORRECT ANSWER -They
enter the mitochondria
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What are the energetic products of the TCA cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER -1 ATP
3 NADH (Each NADH is converted to 3 ATPS via ETC)
1 FADH (Each FADH is converted to 2 ATPs via ETC)

Overall, aerobic respiration of a single glucose molecule results in a net of how many ATPs? CORRECT ANSWER-36

What is the ETC? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Series of proteins called cytochromes embedded in
the inner membrane of the mitochondria
...
Leaving the intermembrane space with a
low pH
...
Uses E of electrochemical gradient to
produce ATP
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What is the final electron acceptor in the ETC? - CORRECT ANSWER -Oxygen

How are Tri-glycerides burned for E? - CORRECT ANSWER -Tri-glyceride broken down into Fatty
Acid and glycerol
...

Fatty Acid transported into mito matrix and converted to acetyl-CoA (Makes NADH for every 2C per
Fatty Acid)

How are proteins burned for E? - CORRECT ANSWER -Amino acids enter at various portions,
depending on the amino acid in question
...

For some genes, (tRNA, rRNA, heterochromatin) eukaryotes have multiple copies
...


What are the purines? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Adenine
2) Guanine

What are the pyrimidines? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Cytosine
2) Thymine

Which carbon is the PO4 group attached to? - CORRECT ANSWER -The 5th carbon on each
pentose sugar
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How do the nitrogenous bases bond to each other? - CORRECT ANSWER -Hydrogen bonds

How many bonds are formed between A and T? - CORRECT ANSWER -2

How many bonds are formed between C and G? - CORRECT ANSWER -3

Why is replication a semi-conservative replication? - CORRECT ANSWER -Each original strand is
added to one newly synthesized strand to form 2 new double helices
...


What enzyme separates the two strands of DNA? - CORRECT ANSWER -DNA helicase

In what direction does DNA polymerase move? - CORRECT ANSWER -3' to 5'

In what direction does DNA polymerase polymerize the complementary strand? - CORRECT

ANSWER-5' to 3'
In what direction does the replisome move? - CORRECT ANSWER -It follows the direction of the
unzipping strand
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The replisome is composed of a number of proteins including helicase, RFC, PCNA,
gyrase/topoisomerase, SSB/RPA, primase, DNA polymerase I, RNAse H, and ligase
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How does RNA differ from DNA? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) DEOXY in DNA
2) RNA is ss
3) RNA has U instead of T

What are the types of RNA? - CORRECT ANSWER -mRNA
tRNA
rRNA

Where is RNA synthesized? - CORRECT ANSWER -Nucleus
rRNA = nucleolus

If RNA uses one strand for transcription, what does the other strand do? - CORRECT ANSWER Protects DNA from degradation
...


What is a promoter? - CORRECT ANSWER -A sequence of nucleotides on the DNA that
designates a start point for trx
...


What is an operon? - CORRECT ANSWER -A unit made up of linked genes that is thought to
regulate other genes responsible for protein synthesis
...

5' to 3'

How fast is transcription compared to replication? - CORRECT ANSWER -Much slower

Which produces more errors? Why? Trx or Replication? - CORRECT ANSWER -Trx
Unlike replication, there is no proof-reading and repair system for try
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T/F: The process of replication and try are E intensive
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Genetically

engineered dna made by recombining fragments of dna from different organisms
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What is the start codon? - CORRECT ANSWER -AUG - methionine

How does the mRNA move into the cytoplasm from the nucleus? - CORRECT ANSWER -Nuclear
pores

What composes a ribosome? - CORRECT ANSWER -2 subunits: Large and small

What are the important sites on the large subunit? - CORRECT ANSWER -A - amino acid site
P - Polypeptide site
E - Exit site

What is the anticodon for AUG
...


What is a nonsense mutation? - CORRECT ANSWER -When a stop codon is formed prematurely
...


What is a silent mutation? - CORRECT ANSWER -When the mutation does not affect the amino
acid due to the degrease code
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- CORRECT ANSWER -The reversion of a mutant to the original
phenotype
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Any mutation which changes a formerly
functional wild genotype or phenotype to nonfunctional

What are the parts of the cell life cycle? - CORRECT ANSWER -Mitosis and Interphase

How is interphase divided? - CORRECT ANSWER -G1(Gap 1) - First growth phase (cell is split)
S Phase - Synthesis - E devoted to replication
G2(Gap 2) - Cell prepares to divide (cellular organelles double in n)

When does mitosis take place? - CORRECT ANSWER -After G2

What are the steps of mitosis? - CORRECT ANSWER -PMAT

What happens in prophase? - CORRECT ANSWER -Chromosomes condense
Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Centrioles move to opposite poles
Spindle apparatus formed by microtubules

What happens in metaphase? - CORRECT ANSWER -Chromosomes line up along equator of
spindle

What happens in anaphase? - CORRECT ANSWER -Sister chromatids split and move to either
pole (Disjunction)

What happens in telophase? - CORRECT ANSWER -Nuclear membrane reforms
Chromosomes decondense

Describe spermatogenesis
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In meiosis, which stage is the most distinct from mitosis? - CORRECT ANSWER -Prophase I: Each
chr lines up next to homolog = synapsis
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What is the longest stage of meiosis? - CORRECT ANSWER -Prophase I

What happens in Metaphase I? - CORRECT ANSWER -Tetrads line up at spindle equator

What happens in Anaphase I? - CORRECT ANSWER-Chiasmata are torn apart
Centromeres remain intact

What happens in Telophase I? - CORRECT ANSWER -Nuclear membrane reforms
Doesn't always occur

What is the separation called in Meiosis I? - CORRECT ANSWER -Reduction division: Reduces the
ploidy number of the cell
...
2n or n? - CORRECT ANSWER -Secondary spermatocytes
...
Just start with
haploid cell instead of diploid
...


What is released upon each nuclear division of oocyte meiosis? - CORRECT ANSWER -A polar
body

Why are polar bodies produced? - CORRECT ANSWER -To conserve cytoplasm
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What is a virus composed of? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) DNA or RNA
2) Capsid - Protein coat
3) Lipid envelope

How many genes does a virus typically have? - CORRECT ANSWER -1 - several hundred genes

How is the lipid envelope gained in a virus? - CORRECT ANSWER -A reverse endocytotic process

What is a bacteriophage? - CORRECT ANSWER-1) Icosahedral (20)
2) Tail fibers - attach to host receptor protein

Can viruses have both DNA and RNA? - CORRECT ANSWER -No

Are viruses living organisms? - CORRECT ANSWER -No

What explains the species barrier of viruses? - CORRECT ANSWER -A virus typically requires a
specific glycoprotein on the cell membrane in order to infect the cell
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -1) Virus connects with specific
glycoprotein receptor on host cell
...

4) Lytic or lysogenic

Define lytic cycle
...

Metabolically inactive

Define lysogenic cycle
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -70s =
50s large
30s small

Describe the ribosome of an animal
...


Define passive diffusion
...


How does the membrane create such electrochemical gradients? - CORRECT ANSWER -The
membrane is both semi-permeable and selectively permeable
...

1) Passive diffusion
2) Facilitated diffusion
3) Active transport

What is facilitated diffusion? - CORRECT ANSWER-When a protein is specifically designed to
allow a certain molecule to cross the molecule and not others with the same size and charge
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What is active transport? - CORRECT ANSWER -Primary AT: Requires ATP
...
Doesn't use ATP directly, but does require E
expenditure
Example: Epi cells of intestine, epi of proximal tubule in kidney

What form of transport is the only one that can move a molecule against its electrochemical
gradient? - CORRECT ANSWER -Active transport

What composes peptidoglycan? - CORRECT ANSWER -A polymer consisting of sugars and amino
acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of bacteria (but not Archaea),
forming the cell wall
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What is meant by gram negative? - CORRECT ANSWER -Stain pink because thin Pg wall and 2nd
phospholipid bilayer outside the Pg wall
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How do bacteria reproduce? - CORRECT ANSWER -Binary fission

What is binary fission? - CORRECT ANSWER -No genetic recombination
...


How do bacteria recombine their genes? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Conjugation
2) Transformation
3) Transduction

What happens in conjugation? - CORRECT ANSWER -One bacterium with F+ plasmid makes sex
pillus that attaches to another bacterium
...
F+ confers ability to make a sex pillus
...


What happens in transformation? - CORRECT ANSWER -When bacteria pick up naked DNA from
the surrounding environment
...


What happens in transduction? - CORRECT ANSWER -DNA materials are conferred through a
vector, such as a virus
...


In order to grow, what three things do all organisms need? - CORRECT ANSWER -Carbon,
Energy, and electrons

How do we classify organisms? - CORRECT ANSWER -Autotrophs - use CO2 as carbon source
Heterotrophs - rely on organic matter for carbon
Phototrophs - E from sun
Chemotrophs - E from chemicals
Lithotrophs - e from inorganic matter
Organotrophs - e from organic matter

What are the three division of fungi? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Zygomycota
2) Ascomycota
3) Basidiomycota

Most fungi have what kind of cell wall? - CORRECT ANSWER -Septa - made from polyssacharide
called chitin, which is strongly resistant to microbial attack
...


Hyphae: Each of the branching filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus
...
Only a
brief time as diploid
...


If a fungus is not suited for its environment, in which way is it likely to reproduce? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Sexually, bc it produces genetic variation
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What happens in the nucleolus? - CORRECT ANSWER -Subunits of ribosome are assembled
...

Very selective

What happens in pinocytosis? - CORRECT ANSWER -Much smaller particles stimulate the
membrane through protein receptors to invaginate to form membrane bound vesicle
...

Example: Cholesterol

In order to reach the cytosol, how does something need to be transported? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Via a method that takes it across the membrane
...
especially
proteins leaving cell
...


What is the function of the smooth ER? - CORRECT ANSWER-Lipid synthesis
...

Drug detox

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and what does it do? - CORRECT ANSWER -Sarcoplasmic
reticula are the smooth ER found in smooth and striated muscle
...


As a protein is translated, where do they go once they're in the ER lumen? - CORRECT ANSWEREnzymes in the rER attach a small sugar complex that specifies where the protein will go
...


What's the difference between the cis golgi and the trans golgi? - CORRECT ANSWER -CIS - faces
inside
TRANS - faces outward

What does the golgi do? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Manufactures polysaccharides from simple
sugars and modifies the carbohydrate tags on proteins or lipids
...


2) Makes lysosomes
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(Rapid, Depends on concentration of Ca and Mg ions)

Which is smaller? Microtubules or microfilaments? - CORRECT ANSWER -Microfilaments

What are microtubules? - CORRECT ANSWER -Provide structure for cell and scaffolding for
movement
...


What are intermediate filaments? - CORRECT ANSWER -More like tubules then filaments
Role less understood

What is the difference between a centrosome and centriole? - CORRECT ANSWER -an organelle
that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell as well as a
regulator of cell-cycle progression
...


What are the different types of cellular junctions? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Gap
2) Tight
3) Desmosomes

What are gap junctions? Where are they found? - CORRECT ANSWER -Little tunnels between
contiguous cells that allow for the passage of ions and nutrients
...
Barrier to lateral movement of membrane proteins
...

A structure by which two adjacent cells are attached, formed from protein plaques in the cell
membranes linked by filaments
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -1) A stimulus is received by the dendrites of a
nerve cell
...
If the opening is sufficient to drive the interior
potential from -70 mV up to -55 mV, the process continues
...
The Na+ influx drives the interior of the cell membrane up to about +30 mV
...

2) The Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open
...
Having both Na+ and K+ channels open at the
same time would drive the system toward neutrality and prevent the creation of the action
potential
...

4) The repolarization typically overshoots the rest potential to about -90 mV
...
Hyperpolarization prevents the neuron from receiving another stimulus
during this time, or at least raises the threshold for any new stimulus
...
In other words, hyperpolarization assures that the signal is
proceeding in one direction
...


What is the value of the resting potential? - CORRECT ANSWER --70mV

What are schwann cells? - CORRECT ANSWER -
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -the propagation of action potentials along
myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of
action potentials without needing to increase the diameter of an axon
...
- CORRECT ANSWER SAME DAVE
Sensory Afferent
Motor Efferent

Dorsal Afferent
Ventral Efferent

What does the medulla do? - CORRECT ANSWER -Controls breathing, HR, and other somatic and
autonomic functions
...


What does the prefrontal cortex do? - CORRECT ANSWER -Controls elaboration of thought
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Lens - focuses images on
retina
Retina - located at back, composed of rods(no color) and cones (color)
Iris - group of smooth muscles creating opening to eye

Describe the functional anatomy of the ear
...


Whats the difference between endocrine and exocrine? - CORRECT ANSWER -Exocrine - release
enzymes to ext environment through ducts
Endocrine - release general hormones directly into blood with no special

What are the 3 classes of hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Peptides
2) Steroids
3) Tyrosine derivatives

Where are peptide hormones initially manufactured? - CORRECT ANSWER -Rough ER

What stage are peptide hormones when synthesized at the rough ER? - CORRECT ANSWER Prepro

Describe how a preprohormone is processed to a hormone, and important locations as this happens
...
They dissolve in the blood
...


Where are receptors to peptide hormones located? - CORRECT ANSWER -On the surface of
cells
...


Describe the signaling cascade associated w/peptide hormones
...

2) Membrane bound receptor activates a G protein
...

4) Adenylate cyclase increases the cAMP concentration
5) cAMP activates a protein kinase which PO4s or dePO4s and enzyme

What are 2 advantages of a 2nd messenger system? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) The same hormone
can affect multiple signaling pathways within a cell
2) The effect can be exponential via the cascade

From what molecule are steroids typically derived from? - CORRECT ANSWER -Cholesterol

Describe the general qualities of a steroid hormone
...


If steroid hormones are nonpolar, how do they move through the blood? - CORRECT ANSWER Steroid hormones usually move through the blood attached to carrier proteins
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Steroid
hormones bound to carrier proteins in the blood detach from the carrier protein, diffuse through the
membrane, and bind to another carrier protein in the cytosol
...


What do steroids regulate? - CORRECT ANSWER -The production of RNA,
...


What are the glands that produce steroids? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Adrenal ctx
2) Gonads
3) Placenta

What are the subclasses of tyrosine derivative hormones? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Thyroid
hormones (behave like steroids)
2) Catecholamines - Epi, norepi (behave like peptides)

How does the HTH signal the anterior pituitary? - CORRECT ANSWER -Via portal vessels
...


How does the HTH signal the posterior pituitary? - CORRECT ANSWER -Via specialized neurons
whose cell bodies are in the HTH
...


LH, FSH

What does PIH stand for, and what does it stimulate? - CORRECT ANSWER -Prolactin inhibitory
hormone
...

TSH

What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? - CORRECT ANSWER -FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
GH

What kinds of hormones does the pituitary make? - CORRECT ANSWER -Peptide

What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary? - CORRECT ANSWER -Vasopressin
Oxytocin

What is ACTH, and what does ACTH act on to stimulate what? - CORRECT ANSWER Adrenocorticotropic hormone
...


What is TSH, and what does it act on to stimulate what? - CORRECT ANSWER -Thyroid
stimulating hormone
...


What is prolactin? - CORRECT ANSWER -Promotes mammary gland development and milk
production
...

It doesn't have a specific target tissue, affects all tissues
...

Also causes target cell to use more Fatty Acid for E, than glu and prot
...
(prolongs digestion for more efficient nutr)

How does vasopressin work? - CORRECT ANSWER -Increases water reabsorption by increasing
the water permeability of the collecting ducts in the nephrons of the kidney
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Tyrosine derivatives
Lipid soluble
Attach to carrier proteins to dissolve in blood
Increase gene transcription

How is the effect of T3/T4 different from GH? - CORRECT ANSWER -GH increases growth, T3 and
T4 increase BMR
...

Increases Ca absorption in the kid and int
...


What kind of hormone is PTH? - CORRECT ANSWER-Peptide

What is gluconeogenesis? - CORRECT ANSWER -The formation of glucose by non-glucose
precursors
...


What are the hormones made by the adrenal cortex? - CORRECT ANSWER -Mineralocorticoids Aldosterone (acts on last portion of distal tubule to reabsorb Na and secrete K)
Glucocorticoids - Cortisol

What are the hormones made by the adrenal medulla? - CORRECT ANSWER -Catecholamines Epi, norepi

What does cortisol do? - CORRECT ANSWER -Increases blood glucose
...

Liver absorbs amino acids and Fatty Acid and makes glucose
...


What is the difference between the effects of epi and norepi as hormones vs nt? - CORRECT

ANSWER-As hormones, their effect lasts much longer because they are cleared from the body
very slowly
...

They're modified post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons (neurons that normally release epi and
norepi)

Where does spermatogenesis occur? - CORRECT ANSWER -Seminiferous tubules of the testes

What are leydig cells? - CORRECT ANSWER -Stimulated by: LH, they
Produce: testosterone (resp for secondary sex characteristics)
...


What eventually ends the lengthwise growth of long bones by hardening the epiphyseal plates? CORRECT ANSWER-Testosterone

What are sertoli cells? - CORRECT ANSWER -Location: seminiferous tubules
Stimulated by FSH: Nurture the developing sperm

Where do the immature sperm go to mature? - CORRECT ANSWER -The epidydmus

What three things add fluid to the ejaculate to make semen? - CORRECT ANSWER -Seminal
vesicle
Prostate
BU gland

When do the oogonia in the ovary become primary oocytes? - CORRECT ANSWER -Fetal
development

What does FSH do at puberty? - CORRECT ANSWER -Stimulates granulosa cells to form the zona
pellucida around the oocyte
...


What is the luteal surge? - CORRECT ANSWER -A rapid increase in LH as a result of positive
feedback between AP and ovary
...


What is the corpus luteum? - CORRECT ANSWER -The portion of follicle left behind after
ovulation
...


What happens to corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs? - CORRECT ANSWER -Degenerates
...
Cell
divisions with unequal portion of cytoplasm resulting in a morula
...


What happens to the morula? - CORRECT ANSWER -Undergoes blastulation to form the
blastocyst (where fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel is formed)
...


What is the name of the opening where gastrulation occurs? What does it become? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Blastopore
In protostomes - mouth, deuterostomes - mouth + anus

What is gastrulation? - CORRECT ANSWER -Invagination of blastocyst to form gastrula
...


What is derived from the ectoderm? - CORRECT ANSWER -Skin, hair, nails, CNS

What is derived from the endoderm? - CORRECT ANSWER -Dig tract, liver, pancreas,
gallbladder, resp tract lining

What is derived from the mesoderm? - CORRECT ANSWER -Bones, muscle

Describe ingestion, digestion, and absorption
...
CORRECT ANSWER-True!

Trace the digestive system in it entirety
...


What is the main function of villi and microvilli? - CORRECT ANSWER -To increase the surface
area of the small intestine
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Synthesized in the liver
...

Secreted via the pancreatic duct
...


Describe the main functions of the sgements of the small intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER Duodenum - Digestion
Jejunum, Illeum - Absorption

What is the major role of the large intestine? - CORRECT ANSWER -To absorb water

What vitamins are provided by bacteria in the intestine? What do we give the bacteria? CORRECT ANSWER-Vitamin K, B12, Thamin, Riboflavin
...

Raise insulin

What are the nutrients broken down from macromolecules? - CORRECT ANSWER Monosaccharides
amino acid
Fatty Acid

What are some polysaccharides? - CORRECT ANSWER -Glycogen (meat, fish)
Starch (plants)
Cellulose (plants)
Chitin (exoskeleton of insects, mushrooms)

What are some disaccharides? - CORRECT ANSWER -Sucrose (beet, cane sugar) = glu + fru
Lactose (milk) = glu + gal

What percent of carbohydrates in a typical diet are broken down into glucose? - CORRECT

ANSWER-80%
What percent of the monosaccharides in blood are glucose? - CORRECT ANSWER -95%

Name the enzymes in the mouth and duodenum that break down carbs
...


How is fru absorbed into the enterocyte? - CORRECT ANSWER -Facilitated diffusion
Therefore can't be taken in against its conc gradient
...
The enzymes of the pancreas break macromolecules into smaller pieces
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -True
...


Where and what emulsifies fat? - CORRECT ANSWER -Bile, in the duodenum
...


What do bile micelles do? - CORRECT ANSWER -Shuttle fat digestates to brush border

What happens to the fat digestates once they enter the enterocyte and where does this occu r? -

CORRECT ANSWER-They recombine to from Tri-glyceride at the smooth ER
...
These are
released out the basolateral surface of the cell via exocytosis into the lymph system
...
=> Liver or AT

What is a major role of the liver? - CORRECT ANSWER-To regulate glucose concentration in the
blood
...


The liver receives blood directly from the intestines via the _______________
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery

Rather than capillaries, what does the liver have and what do they do? - CORRECT ANSWER Sinusoids
...

Can expand and act as blood storage reservoir for the body
...
They also destroy irregular blood cells
...


What is the renal corpuscle composed of? - CORRECT ANSWER -Glomerulus
Bowman's Capsule

What does the renal corpuscle do? - CORRECT ANSWER -A glomerulus receives its blood supply
from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation
...
The resistance of these arterioles results in
high pressure within the glomerulus, aiding the process of ultrafiltration, where fluids and soluble
materials in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule
...

Reabsorped:
glu (AT - Na cotransport prot along conc grad of Na, all filtered reabsorbed)
amino acid (AT and FD - not all bc FD)
prot (PINO)

By the time the filtrate gets to the loop of Henle, what's it like? - CORRECT ANSWER -The
osmolarity of the filtrate hasn't changed, but the amount of filtrate has been reduced by 80%, and
the consistency of the filtrate has changed
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -As you go down the loop of henle gets more
concentrated, but more dilute as you go up the other side
...
This prepares the kidney to
produce concentrated urine
...
The
blood flow of the VR is in the opposite dirxn of the filtrate flow and allows for the maintenance of
the conc of the medulla
...


What are macula densa cells and where are they located? - CORRECT ANSWER -Distal tubule
Monitor filtrate volume and Na conc
...
This incr the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus, causing the filtrate rate to increase
...
In response, renin is
released into the blood from the JG cells
...
ATII constricts the efferent arterioles, further increasing the glomerula pressure
and FR
...


What part of the heart is the strongest and why? - CORRECT ANSWER -LV
Must pump blood throughout the entire systemic circulatory system
...


What percent of net fluid is lost to the interstitial space? Where does it go? - CORRECT

ANSWER-10%
Lymph system

Where is the total cross sectional area greatest in the CS? - CORRECT ANSWER -Capillaries

Where is the velocity of blood lowest in the CS? What does the low velocity allow? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Capillaries
More time for gas and nutrient exchange
...
- CORRECT ANSWER-SA node of RA
AV node
Ventricles
Bundle of HIS (septum)
Purkinje fibers

Describe the specialized muscle of the SA node
...
The SA node is innervated by
the vagus nerve
...


What would happen to the HR if you cut the vagus nerve? - CORRECT ANSWER -HR would
increase

How does the electrical signal spread from cardiac muscle cell to cell? - CORRECT ANSWER -AP
spreads via gap junctions in the intercalated discs
...
(PV = nRT)
atm P pushes air into lungs
...
Recoil of lungs drives the air out
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Mouth, trachea, R L primary bronchi, bronchioles,
alveolar ducts

Where does gas exchange occur? - CORRECT ANSWER -Alveoli and the capillaries

How thick is a single alveolus? - CORRECT ANSWER -One cell thick
...


Does the pH of the blood increase or decrease while in the tissues? - CORRECT ANSWER Decreases
BC tissues release CO2

What is the ratio of Fe binding to O? - CORRECT ANSWER-1 Fe : 1 O

How many oxygens are carried by one molecule of Hb? - CORRECT ANSWER -4

How many Hb in a RBC? - CORRECT ANSWER -280E6

What is cooperativity? - CORRECT ANSWER -When the first O2 binds to Hb, it's affinity for O2 at
the other 3 binding sites increases
...
e
...


Is myoglobin affected by the same qualities as Hb? - CORRECT ANSWER -No
...


What is the shape of an oxygen dissociation curve for Hb and why is that shape? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Sigmoidal
Bc of BPG

How does the curve shift in the presence of a) H+ ions, b) CO2, c) heat? - CORRECT ANSWER These lower the affinity, so Hb is les saturated
...


What is the shape of an oxygen dissociation curve for myoglobin and why is it that shape? CORRECT ANSWER-Not sigmoidal
...
- CORRECT ANSWER Hb -> Mb

Where is the fetal Hb in comparison to maternal Hb in an oxygen dissociation curve? - CORRECT

ANSWER-Fetal Myoglobin to left of Fetal Hb to left of maternal Hb

What is the phenomenon of chloride shift? - CORRECT ANSWER -A process which occurs in a
cardiovascular system and refers to the exchange of bicarbonate (HCO3-) and chloride (Cl-) across
the membrane of red blood cells
...
When carbon dioxide levels fall as the blood passes through the lungs,
bicarbonate levels fall in the serum because the equilibrium shifts to replace CO2, and consequently
bicarbonate in the red blood cells will move out into the serum
...
Reverse
changes occur in the lungs when carbon dioxide is eliminated from the blood
...
This chloride shift may also regulate the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
through the chloride ion acting as an allosteric effector
...

Phagocytized by Kupffer cells in liver and spleen
...
e
...
APC activity
...

All cells but lymphocytes
...

2) Cell-Mediated: T cells
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -
...


What kind of expression is O blood? - CORRECT ANSWER -Homozygous recessive
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -
...

The AP spreads along the membrane and into the t tubules
...


What happens in a muscle fiber when it contracts? - CORRECT ANSWER -Contracts - H,I get
smaller

How does the body control how much force to use with a muscle? Relate size to f(x)
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Red - I - slow twitch - legs
White - II - fast twitch - biceps

Define Mendel's 1st Law: Law of Segregation
...

Organisms inherit two alleles for each trait
...

When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant and the other is recessive
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -Allele pairs
separate independently during the formation of gametes
...


What is partial or incomplete dominance? - CORRECT ANSWER -Blend

What is codominance? - CORRECT ANSWER -AB blood type
...


Describe complementarity
...
The gene that makes the alpha
hemoglobin polypeptide and the gene that makes the beta hemoglobin polypeptide work together
to make a complete hemoglobin protein
...
- CORRECT ANSWER -In epistasis, one gene "hides" the effects of another
gene, much the way one allele hides the affect of its homologous allele in dominance
...
So, eeBB and e ebb would both have white fur;
EeBB would have black fur and Eebb would have brown fur
...


What is divergent evolution? - CORRECT ANSWER -Occurs as groups of the same population
develop away from each other and become less and less similar
...
(Example: Wings of bats and birds are
homoplastic, bc they evolved separately)

What are the different kinds of symbioses? - CORRECT ANSWER -1) Mutualism
2) Commensalism
3) Parasitism

Who benefits from mutualism? - CORRECT ANSWER -BOTH species benefit
...
coli in humans

Who benefits from commensalism? - CORRECT ANSWER -One species, but at no cost to the
other
...

Virus

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium states what? - CORRECT ANSWER -The gene pool will remain
constant as long as the following things are met:

1) Large population
2) No mutation
3) No migration
4) Random mating
5) Reproductive success random

What does the binomial theorum help you do? - CORRECT ANSWER -If you know what the gene
pool is, you can predict the number of hets and homos
...
5 billion years ago

When did life first arise on earth? - CORRECT ANSWER -3
...

Followed by chemosynthetic autotrphy
Photosynthetic autotrophy

When did eukaryotes evolve? - CORRECT ANSWER -1

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