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IEMA Associate Exam Revision Notes

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1 Describe the main natural cycles (water, carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus) and ecological systems (plants and animals
and their interaction with non living components)
...

Whilst the mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time (332
...
The water moves from one reservoir to another
through the physical process of evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow
...


The physical processes of evaporation and condensation represent significant
energy transfers within our ecosystem, and in many areas of the world can
dominate local climate
...
In warmer, tropical areas for example,
where evaporation and evapotranspiration rates are particularly high
thunderstorms and heavy rainfall occur regularly and predictably
...
The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals
across the globe
...
The water cycle
is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet
...

Water evaporates as water vapour into the air
...
Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants
and evaporated from the soil
...
The
lowered temperature (caused by the higher altitude) causes water vapour to
condense into a tiny liquid water droplet
...
Large concentrations of these
droplets in the atmosphere become visible as cloud, or fog is formed if the water
vapour condenses near ground level
...
Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as

rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff
...
Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater)
may be stored as freshwater in lakes
...
Some water infiltrates deep into the ground
and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time
...
Some groundwater
finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs
...
Over time, the water
returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle
...
Carbon is the structural basis of all life and is also the source of a large
amount of the world’s energy
...
The major reservoirs of carbon are: the atmosphere, the terrestrial
biosphere, the oceans (including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and nonliving marine biota), the sediments (including fossil fuels, fresh water systems
and non-living organic material, such as soil carbon) and the Earth’s interior
(carbon from the Earth’s mantle and crust)
...


Plants provide a crucial carbon transfer, as photosynthesis represents their
ability to fix energy from the sun into a form useable by other organisms
...
The process of respiration (required to utilise
energy from these sugar molecules) requires the input of oxygen from the
atmosphere, with carbon dioxide being released as a result
...


The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean and sediments is
fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human
influence
...
Increasing
temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations may be seen as having a
potentially positive impact on plant productivity if considered in isolation, with a
potential increase in plant productivity and therefore crop yields for example
...
This has led to a loss of biodiversity, reduced
global forest coverage, increased soil erosion, and reduced plan productivity due
to pollution, all of which reduce ecosystem’s’ ability to remove carbon from the
atmosphere (effectively reducing the effects of global warming) as well as
increase their sensitivity to potentially detrimentally environmental changes
...
The largest pool of nitrogen
is atmospheric, with nitrogen comprising 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere
...
Nitrogen fixing needs to
occur producing ammonium, nitrites and nitrates, before plants can use it
...
Lightning strikes cause atmospheric nitrogen to react with oxygen to form
NO and NO2, which dissolve into raindrops to fall as nitric acid,
contributing to the nitrogen cycle
...
Nitrogen fixing soil bacteria produce use specific enzymes such as
nitrogenase to fix nitrogen
...

Bacteria combine nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia through
ammonification, which is then converted into nitrites and nitrates
through nitrification
...

3
...

4
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Ammonia is further processed by nitrifying soil bacteria to form nitrites (NO2)
and nitrates (NO3) and absorbed by plant roots through assimilation to be
utilised by plants when building amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll
...



The nitrogen cycle is completed when denitrification takes place
...


The nitrogen cycle is essential to life on Earth because nitrogen is used by plants
to generate chlorophyll, enabling photosynthesis and growth
...
Too little
nitrogen can result in very poor plant growth and potentially weaker ecosystems
as a result, whilst too much can produce excessive growth, potentially leading to
eutrophication and anoxification of water bodies through excessive
decomposition by aerobic bacteria
...
Phosphorus and
phosphorus-based compounds are usually found in rocks, ocean sediments and
soil minerals
...


The erosion of these rock formations release phosphorus into ecosystems,
predominantly as phosphorus ions dissolved in water
...
Similarly,
phosphorus is then eventually returned to water either by animal decay or
excretion
...
This importance,
combined with the relatively low concentrations of phosphorus in ecosystems
due to the geological rate of its release from rocks, make it a common limiting
factor to plant productivity
...
A common cause of
such disruptions is the use of synthetic fertilisers in agriculture
...
Other common
anthropogenic inputs of phosphorus into ecosystems at rates which can cause
disruption and imbalance include industrial processes, domestic applications
and sewage effluent discharge
...
2 Explain the importance of natural cycles and ecological
systems


Natural cycles are important because they regulate the elements necessary for
life on Earth by cycling them through the biological and physical aspects of the
world
...
Natural cycles and ecological
systems are interdependent, meaning a change in one cycle can affect the whole
balance of nature
...
It also makes resources, such as water accessible to
plants and animals, and purifies it through the water cycle
...
Biodiversity in itself brings versatility
(ability to adapt to changing conditions) because impacts affect some but not all
species
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1
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Describe the main ecosystem services (provisioning,
regulating, supporting and cultural services)


Humans benefit from a multitude of resources and process that are supplied by
ecosystems
...
Provisioning Services –products obtained from ecosystems
...

2
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This includes: carbon sequestration and climate regulation;
waste decomposition and detoxification; purification of water and air;
and pest and disease control
...
Supporting Services – that necessary for the production of all other
ecosystem services
...

These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services
such as food supply, flood regulation and water purification
...
Cultural Services – nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems
through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection
recreation, and aesthetic experiences
...



Ecosystem services are imperative for the existence of humanity, animals and
plants
...
In an effort to protect
ecosystems the UN released the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005
which has shifted ecosystem services onto the agenda of environmental
professionals, policy and decision makers
...
4 Explain the importance of biodiversity and ecological
stability

Biodiversity and ecological stability are essential components of nature and they
ensure the survival of humanity, plants and animals
...
They not only allow survival, but also maintain a balance between
living things and the resources (such as food and shelter) they need to
survive
...
Our knowledge
of these relationships is incomplete, and the results of disturbances are
thus to some extent unpredictable
...
Growing evidence suggest that undisturbed forest helps to
maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity
...

• Pollution Breakdown and Absorption – Ecosystems and ecological
processes play an important role in the breakdown and absorption of
many pollutants created by humans and their activities
...
Components of ecosystems
from bacteria to higher life forms are involved in these breakdown and
assimilative processes
...
About 40% of the drugs used worldwide have
been developed from plant material, yet 90% of identified plants have
never been chemically evaluated for their medical potential
...






1
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We pollute the
environment, destroy habitats and cause the extinction of species
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Mark
Everard shows how human intervention impacts the natural cycles and
ecological systems with four substances, these are:

1
...
Although
some heavy metals, such as copper and chromium remain essential to
living organisms as components of certain enzyme systems, they are toxic
beyond trace concentrations
...

2
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However human action (largely through fertilisers) have
altered this slow ‘trickle’ geological process by increasing concentrations,
which accelerates productivity and unsettles the structure and
functioning of ecosystems
...
Nitrogen – Although it is essential for life, more reactive forms of
nitrogen (such as nitrate or ammonia) are problematic when present in
excessive concentrations
...
30% of nitrogen fixing is now done artificially, meaning
additional nitrates are being put into ecosystems, leading to
eutrophication
...
Organic Molecules – Many human-made organic substances tend to be
poorly broken down by cells, since nature has not evolved specific
enzyme pathways for substances not encountered through evolution
...
These have included contributions to
mutations or some forms of cancer, and disruption of genetic material and
hormones
...

Ecological systems cannot deal with these occurrences as evolution has not given
them the tools to do this
...
Bioaccumulation is an example of
this and this does not just affect one animal, it reverberates up the food chain as
substances cannot be broken down
...
6 Describe the main pollution sources, pathways and
receptors


Pollution Sources

Pollutants are defined as by-products of human activity that enter or become
concentrated in the environment, where they may cause injury to humans, other
species, habitats or materials
...
The main pollution
sources are:
• Air Pollution – the release of chemicals and particulates into the
atmosphere
...
Photochemical ozone
and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to
sunlight
...

• Water Pollution – the discharge of wastewater from commercial and
industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters;
discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical containments,
such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and containments
into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and
agricultural runoff (chemical fertilisers and pesticides); waste disposal
and leaching into groundwater; eutrophication and littering
...
Among the most significant soil contaminations
are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and
chlorinated hydrocarbons
...
These include: humans, neighbours, the wider
population, sensitive individuals/communities (‘at risk’ receptors); natural and
owned resources, including crops and livestock, wildlife (plants and animals),
conservation/sensitive species and habitats (‘at risk’ receptors); and buildings
and structures
...
This includes the
atmosphere, water (rivers, lakes, aquifers, coasts, seas) and land (including
surface and underground contamination and groundwater)
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7 Describe the cause and effects of climate change

The earth has experienced a relatively constant level of greenhouse gases over
its recent geological history through a natural cycle where the quantity of
emissions into the atmosphere is balanced by the natural degradation of GHGs
and absorption of carbon dioxide by plant life
...
The ever increasing concentration of
anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have caused a layer to build
up in the atmosphere which prevents solar energy from exiting
...


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have prepared a Fifth
Assessment Report (Climate change 2014 Impacts) stating all aspects of food
security are potentially affected, fresh water supplies will diminish, loss of
species, ocean acidification, the global economy will diminish by an estimated 0
...
The IPCC found that these unwanted impacts have already extended
beyond any potential benefits of rising temperatures and that they will worsen if
global-average temperatures continue to rise by the expected lower limit of 2
degrees Celsius by 2100 – and will become potentially catastrophic if
temperatures rise higher than 4 degrees Celsius
...




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Mark Everard)
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Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present,
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
...
The main principles of sustainable development are: put
people at the centre; take a long term perspective; take account of costs and
benefits; create an open and supportive economic system; combat poverty and
social exclusion; respect environmental limits; apply the precautionary principle;

use scientific knowledge; provide transparency, information, participation and
access to justice; and make the polluter pay
...
These concerns led to meetings such as the
Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (1972) and The United
Nations Conference on Environment at Rio in 1992, which culminated in Agenda
21
...
The Rio principles were strongly reaffirmed at the
World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, South Africa
in 2002
...
The strategy aims to ‘enable all people
throughout the world satisfy their basic needs and enjoy a better quality of life
without compromising the quality of life for future generations’
...
Understanding Environmental Policy Issues


2
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An environmental policy is a commitment to maintain, improve or
make efforts to achieve a set objective or target, often (but not always) within a
time-frame, with the purpose of improving environmental performance within
society, businesses, government or others
...
An example of an effective policy is:
the UK government is committed to ensure 15% of UK energy demand will come
from renewables by 2020, as there is a clear measurable target
...
The principle implies that there is a social
responsibility to protect the public from exposure to harm, where scientific
investigation has found a plausible risk
...
For example, in the case of global warming, there is a large body of
evidence suggesting that the Earth’s temperature is rising due to greenhouse gas
emissions
...


In some legal systems, as in the law of the European Union, the application of the
precautionary principle has been made a statutory requirement in some areas of
law
...
Soon
after, the principle integrated with many other legally binding international
treaties such as the Rio Declaration and Kyoto Protocol
...
This encourages action to prevent
environmental damage, rather than repairing the environment after it has
occurred
...

Prevention is cheaper, usually easier and there is less risk of damaging the
environment
...
For example, the purpose of the Pollution Prevention

and Control Act 1999 is to regulate or otherwise prevent and control emissions
capable of causing pollution
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It is regarded as a regional custom because of the strong support it has
received in most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) and European Community (EC) countries
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5 billion for the cleanup of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill
...
One recurring theme is
the role of regulation versus economic instruments in the implementation of the
principle
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The Gas Guzzler Tax in the US is an example of an eco-tax
underpinned by the polluter pays principle
...

Organisations are incentivised to design and manufacture environmentally
friendly products by holding them responsible for the costs of managing their
products at the end of their life
...


Under UK law producers are responsible for packaging, electrical and electronic
equipment, batteries and vehicles
...


Best Available Techniques (BATs)

The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control directive (IPPC) uses the
concept of Best Available Techniques (BATs) in the integrated control of
pollution of air, water and soil
...


The EC Directive (96/61) requires the determination of BATs to consider the
following: use of low-waste technology, use of less hazardous substances,

consumption and nature of raw materials used in the process and their energy
efficiency; and the need to prevent environmental accidents
...
This involves
minimising pollution from various industrial sources throughout the EU and
requires environmental permits to be obtained from Local Authorities (Annex 1)
...
To assist the licensing authorities and
companies to determine BATs, the Commission organises an exchange of
information between experts from the EU Member States, industry and
environmental organisations
...


Lifecycle Thinking

Lifecycle thinking is the concept that both manufacturing a product and
consuming the product have impacts on the environment
...
For example, the raw material extraction, material processing,
transportation, distribution, consumption, and disposal must all be considered
when evaluating the environmental impact
...


Lifecycle thinking can be applied to a wide array of activities as well as products
...


It is referred to as ‘thinking’ because of the often subjective nature of its
assessment
...
When differing user habits are taken into account,
impossibility of lifecycle assessment becomes even more difficult to measure
...


The EC is introducing legislation relating to lifecycle thinking which includes:
• Sustainable Production Action Plan – intends to reduce the environmental
impact and use of resources throughout the life cycles of products, goods
and services; whilst incentivising the use of sustainable goods and BATs
...
It refers to a variety of tools both
voluntary and mandatory, including economic instruments, substance
bans, voluntary agreements, environmental labelling and product design
guidelines
...
This
principle is in direct opposition to some current waste disposal practices, where
waste is shipped from developed to developing countries for recycling
...
For example, in the Stern
review on the Economics of Climate Change (2006), it concluded that the
benefits of strong, early action on climate change outweigh the costs
...


The purpose of mitigation can to find better ways of doing something, enhance
social and environmental benefits; or to avoid, minimise or remedy adverse
impacts
...
The manufacturing organisation is responsible for planning how a
product can be best produced, used and disposed of with environmental issues
in mind; whilst consumers and retailers need to take an active role in safe
disposal
...
2 Describe the main policy instruments available to effect
change (legislative, fiscal, market and voluntary instruments)


Environmental policy instruments are government tools used to implement their
environmental policies and prevent damage to the natural environment
...


Legislative Instruments

Legislative instruments are laws designed to force organisations to comply with
environmental standards
...
Some are very rigid with governments dictating behaviours, whilst
others let parties decide how to comply with the regulations
...



For example, the Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) regulations (Statutory
Instrument 2006 No
...


Strengthens:
• Provide a degree of certainty for business planning
• Consistent environmental standards and uniform rules
...


Disadvantages:
• Inhibit continuous improvement, as they can encourage parties to do the
minimum required
...

• Enforcement and regulation can be expensive
...


The renewable obligations require a specified proportion of energy to be
supplied by companies from eligible renewable sources
...

The level of the annual obligation on electricity suppliers is published by 1
October in the year before it comes into effect
...
Ofgem
issue ROCs to electricity generations relating to the amount of eligible renewable
electricity they generate
...
Suppliers present their ROCs to meet their obligation must pay a penalty
(know as the ‘buy-out price’)
...


Fiscal Instruments

Fiscal instruments are taxes and fees aimed at dissuading organisations from
damaging the environment
...
For example, the Landfill Tax is
designed to reduce the amount of waste organisations send to landfill, while the
Aggregates Levy aims to reduce the noise, dust and loss of biodiversity resulting
from the extraction of aggregates and encourage the use of alternative materials
...
g
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• Can optimise natural resource use as fiscal mechanisms can drive natural
resource use to the individual or business that provides the highest social
and economic value
...


Limitations:
• Can be unfair as green taxes can be regressive
...
g
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• The market heavily discounts the future, which does not support
sustainable resource use
...

Introduced in 1996 the tax dictates a standard rate for active waste (£72 per
tonne) and a lower rate for inactive waste (£2
...



Market Instruments

Market instruments use market price or other economic variables to discourage
organisations from polluting the environment
...


Strengths:
• Potential for greater innovative responses to environmental issues
• Can result in cost savings as market incentives can result in large
reductions of pollution at lower cost to facilities
...

• Raise revenue by targeting instruments at specific environmental
problems, which can be used to reduce taxes on environmental desirable
activities, commonly referred to as tax shifting
...

• Restricts access to resources, e
...
water prices could drive the market
price to levels that prevent equal access to the resource by all citizens
...


The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EUETS) uses market forces to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, a major contributor to global warming
...

‘Allowances’ for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free, and can
subsequently be traded
...
If emissions exceed what is permitted by its allowances, an
installation must purchase allowance from others
...
This
allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions
without significant government intervention
...
Voluntary
instruments can be implemented with little cost (such as paper recycling in
offices and drinks can collection in catering outlets) and be part of good internal
public relations, but there may be a further incentive to participate in voluntary
measures if the ‘green’ aspects of the business can be used to good effect in
marketing the product
...


Strengthens:
• Environmental and conservation benefits include providing greater
assurance for regulatory compliance and advancing performance beyond
regulatory requirements
...

• Benefits for industries include maintaining a competitive edge, increasing
market share, boosting shareholder value and improving public image
...

• Environmental performance is only enhanced by those willing to
participate and abide by voluntary initiatives
...


Organic farming, which the EU has grown by around 30% a year since 1998, is an
example of a voluntary instrument
...


Information Disclosure

Information disclosure can be legislated and/or voluntary and informs the public
and other interested parties about risks or benefits to human health, natural
resources, and environmental consequences created by product or services
...


Strengthens:
• Empowers the public
• Promotes behaviour change, especially where profits are sensitive
• Improves internal knowledge
• Improves government knowledge
• Motivates companies to improve

Limitations:
• Information is sometimes misunderstood
• Limited citizen motivation to seek the information and respond
• Time sensitive
• Costly to produce
• Questionable effectiveness

Examples include: pollutant release inventories, eco labelling and environmental
performance rewards
...
CMAs can be deployed as an alternative to regulation, to
complement existing regulation, or as a precursor to regulation
...
CMAs are used extensively in USA,
Japan and European countries
...




2
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The rationale for government involvement in the environment is
market failure, including the free rider problem and the tragedy of the commons
...
Policies are implemented through a variety of instruments such as
legislation, fiscal, market and voluntary instruments
...
Key
environmental polices relate to water, waste, energy, climate change and
resource use
...


The EU Water Framework Directive came into force in December 2000 and
became UK law in December 2003
...
It is a framework in
the sense that it prescribes steps to reach the common goal rather than adopting
the more traditional limit value approach
...
The Directive’s aim for ‘good status’ for
all water bodies, however 47% of EU bodies covered by the Directive are
currently failing to meet this
...


Other water policies include: the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which
aims to achieve or maintain Good Environmental Status in European seas; and
the Freshwater Fish (Fishlife) Directive which protects identified fresh water
bodies as waters suitable for sustaining fish populations
...
2 million tonnes of controlled waste each year
...
The EU
produces 2
...


The EU Waste Framework Directive provides the legislative framework for the
collection, transport, recovery and disposal of waste, and includes a common
definition of waste
...
The directive lays down a
five-step hierarchy of waste management options (the European Waste
Hierarchy), which must be applied by Member States
...
The directive sets out
ambitious targets, there must be separate collection of paper, metal, plastic and
glass for household waste by 2015 and at least 50% of household waste (by
weight) is to be recycled or prepared for reuse by 2020
...
Mixing of hazardous substances in banned in order to
prevent risks for the environment and human health
...
Nearly 12% of Scotland’s final energy consumption came
from renewable sources in 2012
...
It aims to: limit the energy use in Europe; build
a pan-European integrated energy market; empower consumers and achieve the
highest level of safety and security; extend Europe’s leadership in the
development of energy technology and innovation; strengthen the external
dimensions of the EU energy market; and achieve 20% energy savings by 2020,
particularly in the building and transport sectors
...
By 2050 it wants all energy to come
from renewable energy sources
...

Climate change mitigation policies are complex as they affect countries’
economic growth, saving and investment levels, capital flows and exchange rates
...
It states that policies should be
credible and provide long-term price stability, flexible enough to be able to
adjust to emerging information and changing economic conditions, implemented
as broadly and equitably as possible, and accompanies by broader fiscal reform
...
The Kyoto
Protocol was adopted in Japan in December 1997 and entered into force in
February 2005
...
In December 2012 the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was
adopted, launching a second commitment period, 2013 to 2020
...


The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main
anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) in ways that reflect underlying national
differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions
...
However, much greater
emission reductions will be required in the future if atmospheric GHG
concentrations are to be stabilised
...
The Scottish Government says it is on track to
achieving these targets, despite recent announcements of it failing to meet
interim targets for the fourth year in a row
...


Resource Use Policy

Resource use policies involve the management of components of the biophysical
environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic); and can cover both
infinite and finite resources
...
It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch what amounts
of each type of fish, as well as encouraging the fishing industry by various market
interventions
...
It manages an international common resource and prevents a ‘tragedy of
the commons’
...
The impact of commercial
fishing is not fully known, so in order to limit potentially adverse effects on the
marine environment (precautionary principle) the CFP does the following:
• Adopts a cautious approach, which recognises the impact of human
activity on all components of the ecosystem
...

• Attempts to phase out the practice of discarding unwanted fish
...
This is achieved through four main policy
areas, which are: fisheries management, international policy, market and
trade policy, and funding of the policy
...
This view is contradicted by historical evidence
that reveals fishing stocks have been in chronic decline over the last century as a
result of intensive trawl fishing
...




3
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1 Describe the regulatory framework including the
relationship between international, EU and UK law


International Law

International law is the set of rules in relations between states and nations
...
International law is often divided into hard and soft law
...
The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 is a hard international law
...
Countries are more
likely to agree to soft laws because, while often very persuasive, they are not
legally binding, e
...
the Rio Declaration 1992
...
An example of a
regional custom is the polluter pays principle because of its strong support in
OECD and EU countries
...
They seek to regulate issues as diverse as Climate Change and
International Waste Shipments
...
Although it
may give ‘advisory opinions’ to international organisations and agencies, this
court does not have the power to judge disputes between organisations or
individuals and the state
...
The
United Nations General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council elect
the 15 members of this court
...


An example of international law is the Stockholm Declaration
...
A statement containing 26 principles and 109
recommendations (now referred to as the Stockholm Declaration) has been a
basis from which international environmental law has been developed
...
It was the first document to explicitly recognise
the right to a healthy environment
...
There were, however, no legally binding statutes
resulting from the Stockholm Conference
...



European Union Law

The UK joined the EU in 1973, there are now 27 member states, with Romania
and Bulgaria joining in 2007
...

The EC’s role is: to be independent of national governments; propose legislation
to Parliament and the Council; manage and implement EU policy and the budget;
enforce European law; and to represent the EU on the international stage
...
This is then passed to the commission to set legislation
...
Directives or regulations are adopted, and national governments
become responsible for implementing and funding it
...


The EU uses three main forms of legislation, which are directives, regulations
and decisions
...
Regulations are uniformly binding by all member states on a
specific issue, there is no requirement for intervening legislation by national
governments
...


Implementation of EU directives:
Because of differences in members states’ legal systems, situations, cultures and
the differing subject matter of EU Directives, their implementation is often done
with some degree of leniency, such that they may not have to be implemented
word-for-word, provided the general goals, policies and aims of the legislation
are being effectively addressed and regulated for
...
The
Commission is the competent authority with the responsibility to ensure the
member states implement and enforce EU legislation to agreed deadlines and
surveys the government to make sure they are keeping up with their
responsibilities
...


Last century fixed emission controls dominated the EU’s efforts, however this is
being replaced or complemented with voluntary and market based approaches,
e
...
the Packing Waste Regulations and the Emission Trading Regulations
...
In 1992 the UN Conference on the
Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro and resulting in the
Framework Convention on Climate Change
...
The UK was responsible
for 12
...


When the EU introduces a Directive member states have a given timetable to
comply with it
...
However,
member states usually have to make changes to their laws (transposition) to
implement directives correctly (this happens in 99% of cases)
...

This also happens if a member state transposes the directive in theory but fails
to abide or practice it
...
2 Outline the main types of law (common and statute law, civil
and criminal law – in jurisdictions where they exist)


Common Law

Common law (also known as case law or precedent) is law developed by judges,
courts, and similar tribunals, stated in decisions that nominally decide individual
cases but that in addition have precedential effect on future cases
...
3 billion people) live in common law
jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law
...
g
...


There are two types of common law, which are private and public law
...
It includes the criminal justice
system, regulation and control, statutory notices to control on-going problematic
companies or to stop damaging actions
...
Public law is mainly used for personal
injury claims or for trespassing
...
The second type, private law is a person versus a person, which
includes companies
...
It was deemed that a
person who allows a dangerous element on their land which, if it escapes and
damages a neighbour, is liable on a strict liability basis
...
The application of this rule was used by the Ontario
Supreme Court (Court of Appeal) in Canada in Curtis v Lutes where it was stated
‘One who sets a fire which spreads to his neighbour’s land and does damage may
be held liable under the rule of absolute liability laid down in Rylands v Fletcher’
...
If a similar case
has been resolved in the past then the court is generally bound to use the same
reasoning in the case of interest (through stare decisions)
...
Resultantly, consistency improves with every
similar case, as does the focus on detail and difference between cases
...
While higher courts
may not be bound to precedence based on lower courts, especially where lower
courts with smaller, simpler cases had fewer principles to consider, with
potentially smaller fines, sentences or other punishments
...


Statute Law

A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a
state, city, or country
...
The word is often used to distinguish law made by legislative
bodies from case law, decided by courts, and regulations issued by government
agencies
...

As a source of law, statues are considered primary authority (as opposed to
secondary authority)
...
The entire body of codified statute is referred to as a ‘code’, such as
the United States Code
...


An example of statutes that are not typically codified are ‘private law’, they may
originate as a private bill, a law affecting only one person or a small group of
persons
...


Civil Law (common law)

Civil law exists in common law countries, such as UK and Australia where the
term refers to non-criminal law
...
Civil law governs disputes between individuals
in such areas as contracts, property, and family law
...
Precedence does not have an influence on the judicial
application of these codes within court
...


Because some courts have both civil and criminal jurisdiction, civil proceedings
cannot be defined as those taken in civil courts
...
In
the UK, the burden of proof in civil proceedings is in general, with a number of
exceptions such as committal proceedings for civil contempt, proof on a balance
of probabilities
...
It regulates social conduct
and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to
the property, health, safety, and moral welfare of people
...
Criminal law varies according to
jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, where emphasis is more on dispute
resolution and victim compensation than on punishment
...
Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each
...
The Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service (COPFS) provides
independent public prosecution of criminal offenses in Scotland and has
extensive responsibilities in the investigation and prosecution of crime
...
The ‘not proven’ verdict is often taken by
juries and the media as meaning ‘we know they did it but there isn’t enough
proof’
...




3
...
It is
one of the EUs two directives in relation to wildlife and nature conservation, the
other being the Birds Directive
...
These are species
and habitats which are considered to be of European interest, following criteria
given in the directive
...

Article 17 of the directive requires EU Member States to report on the state of
their protected areas every six years
...


Birds Directive 2009
The Birds Directive, more formally known as the Council Directive 2009/147/EC
on the conservation of wild birds, is a EU directive adopted in 2009
...
The Birds Directive aims to protect all European
wild birds and the habitats of listed species, in particular through the designation
of Special Protection Areas (SPA)
...
g
...
The Birds Directive is one of the EU’s
two directives in relation to wildlife and nature conservation, the other being the
Habitats Directive
...

• Protection of Badgers Act 1995 – makes it an offence to wilfully kill,
injure, take or attempt to take badgers
...

• Environmental Act 1995 – sets up regulatory bodies for contaminated
land, mines, national parks, pollution control, conservation of natural
resources, conservation or enhancement of the environment and
fisheries
...

It is similar to England and Wales’ Countryside and Rights of Way Act
2000, however the latter does not give unhindered access
...
It also covers biodiversity, pesticides harmful to
wildlife and the protection of birds
...

• Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 – implements the
EU habitats directive in respect of the conservation of natural habitats,
wild flora and fauna
...


•

Environmental Protection Act 1990 – the structure and authority for
waste management and control of emissions
...
A report from the European Environmental Agency shows that
road transport remains Europe’s single largest air pouter
...
5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
...
The 2008 directive replaced
nearly all the previous EU air quality legislation and was made law in England
through the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2010, which also incorporates the
4th air quality daughter directive (2004/107/EC) that sets targets for levels in
outdoor air of certain toxic heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
...


UNECE Gothenburg Protocol 1999
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce
acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emissions
ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and
ammonia to be met by 2010
...
On 4th May 2012, at a meeting at the United
Nations Office at Geneva, the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol agreed on a
substantial number of revisions, most important are the inclusion of the
commitments of the Parties to further reduce their emissions until 2020
...

• Local Air Pollution Prevention and Control (LAPPC) systems – these
systems control emissions to the atmosphere from various industrial
sectors covering approximately 17,000 individual processes
...
LAPPC activities are governed by local authorities rather than
the Environmental Agency since they cover release to air alone and pose a
lower environmental risk
...


•

UK Clean Air Act 1993 (applicable in England, Scotland and Wales) and
the Clean Air (Northern Ireland) Order 1981, for which Local Authorities
are the relevant environmental regulator, are the most recent main pieces
of legislation covering general air pollution
...

These regulations govern air pollution for small businesses that do not
fall under the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) (Amended)
Regulations
...




Water


Activities such as discharges to the water environment, abstractions, and
physical works in rivers and lochs can threaten the water environment and the
animals and people that rely on it
...
It is a framework in the sense that
it prescribes steps to reach the common goal rather than adopting the more
traditional limit value approach
...
The Directive’s aim for ‘good status’ for all water bodies will not be
achieved, with 47% of EU water bodies covered by the Directive failing to
achieve the aim
...
The aim of the Directive is to
protect or improve the quality of those running or standing fresh waters which
support or which, if pollution were reduced or eliminated, would become
capable of supporting fish belonging to: indigenous species offering a natural
diversity, or species the presence of which is judged desirable for water
management purposed by the competent authorities of the Member States
...
Under the Directive Member States must
take necessary steps to: prevent the introduction into groundwater of
substances in list I; and limit the introduction into groundwater of substance in
list II so as to avoid pollution of this water by these substances
...
In Scotland this is implemented through
the Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003 and in Northern
Ireland through The Water Environment (Water Framework Directive)
Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003
...
DEFRA
states that we need to improve the quality of our open waters, also known as
‘water-bodies’, these include rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, coastal waters and
groundwater
...
Improving water quality in rivers, streams and
other water-bodies has many benefits, these include: safeguarding jobs and
businesses which rely on good quality water-bodies; and making natural habitats
better for wildlife
...
The combined introduction of these
Acts was to consolidate existing water legislation, which was previously
spread out over 20 separate pieces of legislation
...

The Water Resources Act sets out offenses relating to water, discharge
consents, and possible defences to the offences
...

• Water Act 2014 – the key aim of the Water Act is to introduce more
competition in the sector by encouraging new entrants to offer alternative
water sources and innovative ways of treating sewerage
...

Currently, only very large users of water (those consuming more than 5
million litres per year) can switch supplier
...


http://www
...
org
...
Land quality is defined by its
ability to sustain and fulfil a variety of uses and is dependent on its make up and
functionality
...


UK Implementation:


•

•

•

The Environmental Protection Act 1990
The Environmental Protection Act, known as Part IIA regulates the
management and remediation of contaminated land that, in its current
state, is causing or has the potential to cause significant harm or
significant pollution of the water environment
...
The Part IIA regime
is underpinned by the core principles of the ‘polluter pays’ and a ‘suitable
for use approach’
...

Radioactive Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations 2007
The Radioactive contaminated Land Regulations and their amendments
describe the system to be used for identifying and remedying land
contained by radioactive substances
...



Environmental Impacts Assessment (EIA) Directive
The EU EIA Directive requires an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for
certain types of development before planning permission can be granted
...
It requires the developer to put together an
environmental statement describing the likely significant effects of the
development on the environment and propose mitigation measures for these
effects
...
Its contents
and any comments made must be taken into account by the planning authority
before grating consent
...
Compilation of an environmental statement
2
...

3
...

4
...


UK Implementation (Planning)
The UK Planning System is a legal mechanism for reducing the environmental
impacts of development
...
It considers
where development should happen, where it should not and how development
affects its surroundings
...
It is increasingly being used for remedying past environmental harm or
proving environmental enhancements (e
...
Part 2A EPA 1990)
...


Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act substantially reformed the town
planning and compulsory purchase framework in the UK
...


Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations
2011
The EIA Regulations relate to the EU EIA Directive (85/337/EEC) and give
planning authorities a means of ensuring that they can take account of the
environmental implications of individual developments in their decisions on
planning applications
...

• Even when the application does not require an EIA the environmental
effects of a development will be a material consideration whether or not
the local development framework contains policies dealing with specific
environmental issues
...

• Under the Conservation (Natural Habitats) Regulations 2010, a local
planning authority is required, which a planning application is likely to
have an effect on a European site protected under the Habitats Directive,
to carry out an ‘appropriate assessment’
...

• There are provisions that allow a local authority to grant permission
despite a development having adverse effects, but only if there are
‘considerations of overriding public importance’
...
It also creates the Infrastructure Planning
Commission
...
sepa
...
uk/regulations/land/contaminated-land/



Waste


Scotland still has a long way to go before it has a truly sustainable approach to
the management of waste, we have a duty to protect the environment and human
health from the effects of waste management and disposal
...
It requires member
states to: take necessary measures to ensure waste is recovered or disposed of;
does not damage human health; does not cause harm to the environment; and
issue permits, registration and inspections
...


Waste (Scotland) Regulations 2012
The Waste (Scotland) Regulations came into force on 1 January 2014 and
significantly changed waste industry practices and infrastructure provision
...

• Food businesses (except in rural areas) which produce over 50kg of food
waste per week to present that food waste for separate collection from 1
January 2014
...

• Local authorities to provide a minimum recycling service to
householders
...

• A ban on any metal, plastic, glass, paper, card and food collected
separately for recycling from going to incineration or landfill from 1
January 2014
...

• A ban on biodegradable municipal waste going to landfill from 1 January
2021
...
The European Commission (EC) has
introduced two directives in order to address the problems presented by WEEE
through the Directive on Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment and the

Directive on the Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances in
electrical and electronic equipment
...


Scottish Landfill Tax
Anyone disposing of waste at a landfill site in Scotland is due to pay Scottish
Landfill Tax
...
Since the introduction of the tax in 1996, it is viewed
as being a key factor in the changing of attitudes and the diversion of waste from
landfill
...
sepa
...
uk/regulations/waste/



Air


Good air quality is essential for a good quality of life, helping to maintain human
health and wellbeing, the climate, habitats and achieve sustainable economic
development
...
Emissions to air can give rise to health problems, climate
change, depletion of the ozone layer and changes to habitats
...
However,
there are still hotspot areas of poor air quality and concentrations of groundlevel ozone – a potentially harmful secondary pollutant generated in the
presence of sunlight – have increased
...

Since its entry into force in 1983, the Convention and its subsequent extensions
has contributed substantially to the development of air pollution control
legislation internationally and across the EU
...

The Gothenburg Protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level
ozone sets emission ceilings for four pollutants: sulphur, oxides of nitrogen,
VOCs and ammonia
...


European Strategy
The EU Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe,
known as the Ambient Air Quality Directive, cam into force in June 2008
...
The Directive stresses the importance of combating

emissions of pollutants at source and identifying and implementing emissions
reduction measures at local, national and EU level
...

The package is designed to take forward air quality policy and legislation to
2030
...

• A revised NECD with stricter national emission ceilings for the six main
pollutants
...

Implementation of these measures started in 2014
...
This was last
reviewed and published in 2007
...
The strategy sets out the UK’s air quality objectives
and recognises that action at national, regional and local level may be needed,
depending on the scale and nature of the air quality problem
...
Where an air quality management area is
designated, local authorities are also required to work towards the Strategy’s
objectives prescribed in regulations for that purpose
...
These
plans contribute to the achievement of air quality limit values at local level
...
It
gives local authorities powers to designate Smoke Control Areas, where it
is an offence to emit smoke from a chimney unless using an appropriate
fireplace or fuel
...



Energy

UK Energy Act 2013
The Energy Act 2013 succeeded the Energy Act 2010 and focuses on setting
decarbonisation targets for the UK, and reforming the electricity market
...
The Act aims to maintain a stable electricity supply as coalfired power stations are retired
...


Renewables Obligation
The Renewable Obligation (RO) is designed to encourage generation of
electricity from eligible renewable sources in the UK
...
It states that 15% of the UK’s
energy should come from renewable sources by 2020
...


EU Renewables
The EU has set targets for renewables and biofuel
...
10% of each member
state’s transport energy consumption is to come from renewable sources by
2020
...
The Directive aims to introduce significant
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions with a view to reduce the effects of
climate change
...


Applicants for greenhouse gas emission permits must describe: the installation,
its activities and the technology used; the materials used which could emit the
greenhouse gases listed in Annex II; and the measures planned to monitor and
report emissions
...
A permit may cover one or more installation on the
same site operated by the same operator
...

The competent authority will re-examine the greenhouse gas emissions permit
at least every five years and make the necessary modifications
...
It sets out who the climate change levy, which

•

is charged on supplies of electricity, gas and solid fuel, applies to, what is
taxable, who is exempt and procedures for registering, returns and tax
credits
...

Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009
The Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 includes an emissions target, set
for the year 2050, for a reduction of at least 80% from the baseline year
1990
...
Eight pieces of
secondary legislation have been made under the Act, these are: the
Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Order 2009; Carbon Accounting
Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2010; Climate Change (Limit on Carbon
Units) (Scotland) Order 2010; Climate Change (International Aviation and
Shipping) (Scotland) Order 2010; Climate Change (Annual Targets)
(Scotland) Order 2010; Waste Information (Scotland) Regulations 2010;
Climate Change (Annual Targets) (Scotland) Order 2011; and the Climate
Change (Limit on Carbon Units) (Scotland) Order 2011
...
4 Describe how organisations comply with environmental
legislation


Increasingly the onus is on the producer to take responsibility for any
environmental consequences arising from their business
...
Legislative measures are being used to ensure that businesses are
accountable for dealing with the wastes that they produce
...
Other future producer responsibilities also have to be considered
...
The onus is on the business to know and comply with
regulations
...

They must find out what laws and regulations actually apply to them, and
understand how they apply and what needs to be done to comply
...


Environmental Permit Regime (EPR) 2008
If an organisation needs a permit they must also have an Environmental
Management System (EMS)
...
Many
companies are requiring their suppliers to have an EMS, for example using ISO
14001 or the EU eco management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
...
This
ensures legal obligations are met and obtained on the companies’ behalf relating
to re-use, recovery and recycling
...
Practical company registering compliance
scheme:
• Pay a registration fee
• Tell the scheme the weight of EEE placed on the UK market each year
• Tell the scheme whether it is supplied for household or business use
• Receive product registration number to give to anyone who distributes or
sells products
• Take advice from compliance scheme on the funding cost of treating,
recovering and disposing of products
• Mark products with EEE brand (crossed out wheel bin and brand name or
producer ID)
...
They need to register with a
compliance scheme as soon as possible
...


Renewable Obligations
Requires a specified proportion of energy to be supplied by companies to be
from eligible renewable sources
...
The level of the annual
obligation on electricity suppliers is published by 1 October in the year before it
comes into effect, e
...
the obligation for the financial year starting 1 April 2013
was published on 28 September 2012
...

• Ofgem issues ROCs to electricity generators relating to the amount of
eligible renewable electricity they generate
• Generators sell their ROCs to suppliers (or traders( which allows them to
receive a premium in addition to the wholesale electricity price
...
Suppliers who do not present enough ROCs to meet their
obligation must pay a penalty (known as the ‘buy-out price’)
...


Use of Guidance Documents – BAT
BATs are implemented with help from BREF documents which operators can
consult when establishing whether they are compliant
...
BATs are required when licencing the major potentially
polluting industries under the IPCC legislative regime
...





Packaging Regulations
Waste from packaging contributes greatly to the overall waste disposal problem
faced by EU Member States
...

Packaging material is handled by all businesses including suppliers,
manufacturers and retailers
...
An EU Directive
94/62/EU was passed in 1994 as part of the EU environmental Action
Programme to reduce the amount of packaging waste that goes to landfill, and in
turn, to conserve raw materials by recycling existing packaging
...
Not all businesses need to comply with the PWR, since they
only apply at present to businesses with a turnover of £2 million and who handle
more than 50 tonnes of packaging waste per annum
...
A fee is
charged for registration
...
The Environmental Agency
(England and Wales) and SEPA (Scotland) are the regulatory bodies for this
legislation
...




3
...
In addition, not only
will a defendant be punished but they will also be liable to pay the prosecution
costs and contend with the related publicity
...
For instance,
the Environmental Agency for England and Wales publishes an annual report of
the worst polluters in the UK
...

The usual penalty is a fine, although in a number of cases prison
sentences have been imposed (where there is a potential personal
liability for directors and senior managers)
...


•

•

•

•

Other Administrative Penalties – if member states do not meet their
obligations under EC environmental law, they can be fined
...

Clean-Up Costs – in most environmental legislation there is the power to
clean up after a pollution incident and recover the cost from the polluter
(or the occupier in some cases)
...

Civil Liability – private law actions can be a valuable supplement to
administrative regulation, and although liability can sometimes be
difficult to establish, the size of claims can be very high
...




Criminal Sanctions
Criminal sanctions give warnings, formal cautions and can lead to prosecution
and fixed penalty notices
...
The Magistrates
Court can impose fines of up to £50,000 or 12 months imprisonment for each
offence of causing or knowingly permitting pollution
...


Civil Sanctions
Civil sanctions include compliance notice, restoration notice, fixed monetary,
penalty variable, monetary penalty, stop notice, enforcement undertaken and
third party undertakings (which promise to compensate persons affected by
pollution)
...


In addition to the formal penalties of non-compliance the reputational risks can
also hurt an organisation
...











3
...
The Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)’s role is to
make sure that the environmental and human health are protected to ensure
that Scotland’s natural resources and services are used as sustainably as possible
and contribute to sustainable economic growth
...
SEPA’s work also includes taking an active
part in the development and revision of guidance, policy and legislation to
tackle climate change
...
SEPA’s work involves working with
and directing local authorise and other partners to manage and improve
air quality
...

• Land – SEPA’s aim is to protect, maintain and restore Scotland’s land
quality by providing expert guidance on good practice of land
management and through a variety of regulations
...


•

Water – Under the Controlled Activity Regulations (CAR) SEPA risk
assesses proposed activities before granting, if appropriate an
authorisation
...


Local Authorities (Councils)
Local authorities regulate on a range of environmental matters including: Local
Authority Air Pollution Control, Statutory Nuisances (e
...
noise, odours and
smells), contaminated land, land use planning, and tree perseveration orders
...
It also acts as the
Government’s advisor on the English natural environment
...
It also acts as
the Scottish Government’s advisor on the Scottish natural environment
...
It acts as the statutory adviser to the Government on the natural
Environment in Wales
...
It is a joint regulator with the Environment Agency,
SEPA and NIEA in the administration of the control of Major Accident
Hazards Regulations 1999 and the Control of Major Accident Hazards
(Amendment) Regulations 2005
...

• The Planning Inspectorate – The Planning Inspectorate is responsible for
processing of planning and enforcement appeals and holding inquires
into local development plans
...
Understanding Environmental Management and Sustainable
Development in a Business Context


4
...
A hazard is a condition or
physical situation with the potential for undesirable consequences, such as harm
to life
...
A hazard has the potential to do harm but only if it is realised, this
potential is the risk
...
As risks can come from a
variety of places, the risk management process uses an understanding of the risk,
its likelihood and its consequences in order to inform decisions about it
mitigation
...
Businesses may be exposed to
environmental risk from a variety of different sources, such as: land acquisition,
natural hazards, non-compliance, and inherited safety cultures
...
Additionally, environmental risk is of particular
concern due to the potential for legal action, fines and damaged reputations
...
For instance the Waste (Scotland)
Regulations 2009 meant that Scottish businesses were required to change how
they handle waste
...


Risks
Environmental issues such as pollution and climate change can lead to hazards,
which depending on the particular organisation, may constitute risk
...
Over time resources become scarce and

businesses may not be able to operate
...

This phase of development and research can lead to surges in inventions, for
example during both the world wars, which led to the development of radar
...
Future
consumers may be more influenced by environmental factors when considering
which products to buy
...
Often more risky
than the on-going operations (spillages, emissions, large amounts of a
substance, water as a mobiliser)
• Some are anticipated, for instance flooding in a valley or pollution from an
industrial smelter
• Others are unsuspected at the time the technology or activity was
developed, such as effects on the earth’s ozone layer from fluorocarbon
sprays or nitrogen fertilizers
...


Opportunities
Environmental issues may present opportunities for organisations by
encouraging the adoption of more efficient processes, reduction in cost,
improved ability to quickly adapt to change and by reducing risk
...
Organisations can develop their technology to not only meet
their needs but also to benefit the wider society by reducing the environmental
impact of their products
...
Good businesses should put the environment before
competition
...
It identifies the environmental impact of its products through the life cycle
approach and actively develops new technologies to reduce the impact
...

• Understand the nature of the impact the issues might have on the
organisation, depending on the response strategy that is adopted
...

Drive, direct or assist with the implementation maintenance and
development of these strategies over time
...
2 Propose measures to manage environmental risks
(operational, technological, strategic and human)

The first stage of managing environmental risk is to compete a risk assessment
which identifies the risk to be managed
...

Government expectations for producing a risk assessment are contained in the
2000 ‘Guidelines on Environmental Risk Assessment and Management’
...


Operational
Organisations should develop an Environmental Management Strategy (EMS)
which includes: the risks the organisation imposes on the environment; how the
organisation is managing these risks to reduce their impact; report on the
progress made in reducing their impact; and use key performance indicators
...
Additionally, it is good
practice to implement a system for continuous re-assessment of your risks
...
For instance
only 24% made quantitative disclosures
...

Auditors will use the same standard to ensure that companies follow the
regulations
...


Technological
Manufactures should research and develop how they can make their products
more sustainable
...





Strategic
Environmental insight & data, such as GroundSure reports give up-to-date
environmental report data, insights and opinions
...


The DEFRA Key Performance Indicators – Reporting Guidelines for UK
Businesses seek to help companies report their environmental impacts in a
meaningful and cost-effective way
...
Environmental risks
and uncertainties impact to some extend on all companies, and affect investment
decisions, consumer behaviour and Government policy
...

Companies that measure, manage and communicate their environmental
performance are inherently well placed
...
Over
a third of FTSE 350 companies already report KPIs, however the landscape of
environmental, sustainability and corporate responsibility reporting can be
complex
...


Human
Training employees (for instance through IEMA) and giving them the resources
to work on auditing environmental performance, measuring and evaluating
performance, can help to manage environmental risks
...
The tolerable level of risk can be used to inform
the degree to which action is taken, as it may only be necessary to bring risks
below an acceptable level rather than seeking to eliminate them
...




4
...
Some of these advantages may include: identification of
new technologies or techniques to improve efficiency; staff training may bring in
new ideas; improved public perception of the organisation; and new marketing
opportunities regarding environmental actions
...

• Finding value in others’ waste, through direct combustion of wastederived fuel, e
...
landfill gas or anaerobic digestion (producing CO2,
burnable methane, and nitrate-rich matter for fertiliser)
...
g
...

• Using Corporate Social Responsibility as a selling point (in marketing
material) and out-competing competitors through good environmental
practice
...

• Spend less on raw materials, energy and water
• Receive recognition through numerous environmental awards
• Find new market opportunities for ‘green’ goods and services
• Improve workplace safety through reduced use of industrial chemicals
and reduced waste creating a positive impression in the minds of
customers
...
4 Describe the main components of an environmental business
case (financial and non-financial cases)

A business case captures the reasoning for initiating a business project
...
Initially, risk management will divert funds and resources away
from the primary aim, but will instead lead to indirect financial benefits
...
g
...
g
...


Key Financial benefits:
• Save money - organisations can save money from reducing energy and
waste, for example BP reduced their greenhouse gas emissions by 18%
and saved $650 million in 3 years
...

• Streamlining resources – by using less materials per unit (reducing
material intensity); using less energy per unit (reducing energy intensity);

•

•
•

and maximising the percentages of resources that are from renewable
sources, organisations can save costs and ensure they have a reliable
supply of resources
...
According to the LOHAS Journal,
roughly 63 million Americans make purchasing decisions based on
‘sustainability’ considerations, this represents a market of $227 billion
...

Increased profits – consumers will often pay more for sustainable
environmentally friendly products
Tax savings & preferential treatment– green buildings may qualify for
special tax credits or have their planning permissions expedited
...


Key non-financial benefits:
• Increased operational efficiency – organisations can add value by
becoming more environmentally aware
...

• It can strengthen risk management, compliance, productivity and
credibility
...

• Risk management – mitigating accidents will mean reduced costs in cleanup costs, emergency responses and reduced product liability
...

• Value in product design – leading to innovation and the development of
unique selling points, e
...
developing recyclable products
...
For example,
Seventh Generation, a USA based organisation sells green household
products
...




4
...
CSR aims to
embrace responsibility for corporate actions and to encourage a positive impact

on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees,
investors, communities, and others
...
It gives stakeholders a clear position
of the company and they are able to question different elements of an
organisation’s environmental activities
...
They are plotted on a
graph showing the likelihood of occurrence versus the estimated financial
impact of the issue over three years
...


CSR reporting is an important tool in measuring how well a business is
performing in relation to its environmental management
...
6 Explain the importance of environmental sustainability in
value chain management


McKenzie and Porter developed the concept of a value chain for business
management
...
Inputs, transformation processes, and
outputs involve the acquisition and consumption of resources – money, labour,
materials, equipment, buildings, land, administration and management
...


Organisations should be sustainable at every level of the value chain
...
For example, switching to plug in electric cars reduces the
amount of petrol burned, however if electric cars are using inefficient batteries
or the electricity grid is inefficient then the value chain is not as efficient as it
could be
...
Business can put time and effort into making recyclable
packaging, but if the consumer doesn’t recycle it then it defeats the purpose
...
This works well during the manufacturing stage
but it often leads to more deliveries and often trucks are only half full, due to
automatic re-ordering
...
The Toyota Prius emits 30% less carbon dioxide than that of an
equivalent petrol car
...
98% is made up of gathering
raw materials, production, transport, maintenance and disposal
...

Despite the overall lower carbon footprint, the resource gathering and
transportation stages of the Prius has caused significant public scepticism
towards its actual environmental benefits
...
7 Explain the importance of effective resource use and
recovery

Using the value chain approach will enable managers to identify where resources
are used and ensure procedures are put in place to use resources efficiently
...
Not
only is it important to reduce the resources used by an organisation, but
resources should also be recovered where possible
...


Research indicated that resource efficiency can save businesses considerable
amounts of money
...
9 trillion and $3
...


The global population is rising, while resources are declining, so effective
resources use is key to being able to sustain future generations
...
However, these principles go against the capitalist business culture
that we have created (the ‘throw away culture’), e
...
mobile phones only being
designed to last a couple of years
...
The National Industrial
Symbiosis Programme (NISP) has been proving that one company’s waste is
another’s valuable resource since 2005
...


5
...
1 Identify relevant sources of environmental information and
data


The demands on companies for robust environmental data have steadily
increased due to the requirements of legislation, investors and stakeholders
...
Examples of environmental
information sources are:

• Waste Production and Disposal – most organisations will collect some
data on waste production in accordance with the regulations on waste
disposal
...

It may be possible to determine waste production by subtracting the final
product weight from the initial weight of raw materials, if these values are
known
...

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions – organisations are becoming increasingly
aware of the need to report GHG emissions either for legal requirements
such as the Carbon Reduction Commitment (CRC) or to demonstrate their
organisation’s environmental credentials
...
In most instances the majority of
GHG emissions from an organisation will result from its use of electricity
and purchased heat, most commonly as gas or electricity in the UK
...
Energy units (and other GHG
sources) need to be converted into Global Warming Potential emission
units (CO2e)
...


The accuracy of environmental data is important, particularly for those
externally reporting them
...
Failure by an organisation,
covered by one of these schemes, to accurately report GHG emissions may lead
to fines and other sanctions, hence accurate data collection is vital
...


• Absolute Data
Absolute data is presented in absolute units of measurement (e
...
tonners,
cubic metres) over a given period of time (usually per annum)
...
g
...

Normalised Data
Normalised data shows two absolute figures against one another
...
For
example, the total CO2 emissions per unit of output or the proportion of
recycled waste per total waste
...



Environmental
Impact
Greenhouse Gas
Emissions

Absolute Data

Normalised Data Trend Data

Total annual CO2
emissions

CO2 emissions per Total CO2
employee or per
emissions per
unit of output
employee
compared with
previous years
Water
Total
consumption per consumption per
employee or per
employee
unit of output
compared with
previous years
Waste output per Total waste per
employee or per
employee
unit of output
compared

Water
Consumption

Total annual
water
consumption in
m3

Waste Output

Total annual
waste output in
tonnes


Data can also be quantitative (based on numbers and statistics) or qualitative
(based on personal experience and opinion)
...
2 Describe the appropriate techniques to collect, process,
store and retrieve information

It is useful for an organisation to develop a management system to handle all
types of environmental data, which they collect, and report
...


Collection (see 5
...


Processing
Data processing is used to covert the raw data into a form which can be more
easily analysed and stored
...

Any conversion factors to change the data into various units will probably be
applied at this stage too
...
The management
system may also include information relating to security of the data, where it is
stored, who has responsibility for its collection and how it is processed
...


Retrieval
Retrieval is simply ensuring that the storage location is known and all data is
kept in a useable format
...




5
...


Relevance
When considering the relevance of data, it is important to clearly define the
question, which you are seeking to answer
...
In addition, the problem which
you seek to answer may require that the data are presented in specific units,
hence data may only become relevant once it has been converted into relevant
units
...
For example, using CO2e to compare the
impact of emissions between different GHG sources
...
In order for the data to be accurate,
there must be confidence that the reported value is close to the actual value of
what is being measured
...
For data to be precise repeated
measurements should closely agree with on another, for example direct meter
readings should correspond with the values recorded by the utility provider and
reported on the bills
...
This may be errors from manual data
entry, inaccurate recording of data or incorrect application of conversion factors
...
4 Analyse and interpret data


Interpretation of data involves explaining the patterns that you have been able to
observe in the data and is required to justify your conclusions
...
While the methods
employed will be dependent on the data being analysed and the question which
you are seeking to answer, there are some useful principles which will be true in
the majority of cases, these include:

Charts and Graphs
When plotting data on a graph to help identify trends and patters, it is important
to plot the dependent variable on the Y axis and the independent variable on the
X axis
...
For example, water consumption (m3) and GHG
emissions (CO2e) are absolute measures and cannot be obviously compared
...
In
addition to facilitating comparisons, using an intensity ratio also has benefits in
that it can give visibility to patterns that may be missed if just absolute metrics
are used
...
For understanding climate change, it is the absolute value of
GHG emissions that is important while intensity ratios enable businesses to show
improvement, yet still pursue economic growth
...


Targets
Targets are a valuable tool in analysing and interpreting environmental data
...


Historical Performance
Historical performance is important in interpreting the data to determine if
improvement has been made over previous months or years
...
Once sources of
uncertainty have been identified, steps should be taken to minimise their impact
...
5 Draw appropriate conclusions


Once the data have been analysed and the observed trends and patterns have
been interpreted, this information should be used to develop appropriate
conclusions
...


When drawing conclusions, it is important to rely on the data and the patterns
which have been identified
...


The conclusion(s) should include the following key elements:
• What is the answer to the initial question?
• What patterns have been identified?
• What methods have been used to identify these patterns?
• What confidence is there that the patterns are not coincidence?
• How can these patterns be used to improve performance and efficiency?



5
...

There are a variety of ways in which the findings can be presented, these include:
presentations, reports, videos, workshops and one-to-one conversations
...


Visualisations, such as graphs help people to see patterns and trends, even when
data volumes are very large
...




5
...
It is done to
increase confidence in the conclusions that have been reached
...
Verification is often done for
internal confidence while assurance may be necessary for legal compliance and
adds extra believability if conclusions are to be published and marketed
...


There are a number of standards for the verification and assurance of
environmental and sustainability data
...
It introduces the concepts of materiality, completeness and
responsiveness
...
Consequently, an organisation should establish and
explain which aspects and impacts are relevant to its sustainability performance
and which of their stakeholders this affects
...


Responsiveness
To evidence responsiveness, an organisation has to demonstrate that it has
responded to the concerns of its stakeholders regarding its sustainability
performance in the form of an unbiased sustainability performance report
...
Data provided by organisations participated in
the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) must undergo annual
assurance by approved verifiers
...


Fewer than 25% of the FTSE350 have their published sustainability information
independently assured
...
The study also found that firms were
reporting emissions and intensity ratios in a myriad of ways, making comparison
of performance very difficult
...
In addition, almost half (47%) did not include a metric explaining
how they had calculated their intensity figure at all
...
Being Able to Apply Environmental Management and
Assessment Tools

6
...
2 Describe the application of environmental and
assessment tools and outline their advantages and
disadvantages


Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

An Environmental Management Systems (EMS) is a voluntary structured
framework for managing an organisation’s significant environmental impacts
...
EMSs are
designed to improve an organisation’s environmental performance and fulfil
relevant compliance obligations
...


EMSs are based on the Sheward and Deming cycle of continual improvement and
are similar to systems used for quality business management
...
Actions and processes to achieve environmental objectives and fulfil
compliance obligations are implemented (the ‘do’ stage)
...
Finally, any actions for improvement are
implemented (the ‘act’ stage)
...


The EMS cycle of continual improvement
• Leadership – Top management must be involved in and be accountable
for the EMS if it is to succeed
...
They should also
have an important role in the auditioning process
...
Top
management commitment is secured and the scope of the EMS is
established
...

• Do – A baseline review is conducted to identify an organisation’s
environmental aspects and impacts and assess their risks and
opportunities
...

Environmental objectives and targets are set and a plan produced to
achieve them
...


•

•

Check – Here the organisation monitors, measures, analyses and
evaluates its environmental performance through internal audits
...
Finally there is a
management review to determine the areas requiring improvement
...
Tit reviews the
effectiveness of corrective actions taken and changes the EMS if
necessary
...



Managing Risk and Opportunities
Managing risk and opportunities effectively by using a risk matrix enables an
organisation to assign a value for the significance of its aspects and then rank
them in order
...
Risks and opportunities can be managed in
a number of ways:
• Develop environmental objectives to reduce the negative impact or
increase the positive impact
• Stop the negative impact occurring (ideal but often very difficult)
• Develop procedures to reduce the probability of the impact occurring and
lessen its effects should it occur (contingency planning)
• Acknowledge that the impact will occur and produce procedures to deal
with the effects
...
The EMS should also take account of the requirements of
interested parties
...
However, most interested parties, that is, those affected by the
environmental performance of the organisation, such as customers, insurers and
lenders, will want to see an EMS certified to a recognised EMS standard such as
the ISO 14000 series of standards
...
It is closely related to the
ISO 9000 series of quality system standards and focuses on achieving continual
environmental improvement
...
An EMS helps an
organisation to identify and reduce its impacts on the environment and
continually improve its environmental performance
...

• Enhances the internal and external image of the organisation and can
increase market opportunities
...


There are many examples where organisations have achieved considerable cost
savings by implementing an EMS
...
This was achieved by
setting objectives and targets for waste management as part of their EMS
...


The advantages of an EMS far outweigh the disadvantages and it is the most
effective way for an organisation to improve its environmental performance
...
There are
generally two different types of environmental audits; these are compliance
audits and management system audits
...
However, audit
firms frequently develop general protocols that can be applied to a broad range
of companies and operations
...

• General Audits - these examine the possible impacts on surrounding
habits and neighbours
...

• Energy Audits - energy audits or surveys are used to assess the amount of
energy being used at a site, often as a precursor to calculating a ‘carbon
footprint’
...

• Waste Disposal Audits - Waste disposal audits cover the transport and
disposal of waste by contractors
...

• Compliance Audits – used to ensure that an organisation is complying
with legal and other requirements such as industry standards
...

• Due Diligence Audit – this information is usually required by those
wishing to invest in a company and need to be reassured about any costs
and liabilities the company may incur
...
A product’s lifecycle for
example means considering the extraction of the raw materials to making the
product and disposing of the product at the end of its useful life
...
LCA can help producers to conserve raw materials, decrease energy
usage, and reduce waste
...


The steps in LCA include:
• Setting the goals and scope of a life cycle analysis – when carrying out a
LCA, you must first decide what product or service is to be analysed
...

• Inventory analysis – LCA has been developed in a standard framework
(ISO 14040) in conjunction with the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO)
...
For example, the environmental impact of providing the raw
materials
...
There will also be environmental impacts resulting
from the production of the final product, as well as packaging and
distributing it
...

Interpretation – Finally the findings need to be interpreted, and this is
where informed decision making comes into play
...
Relevant legislation, taxes and costs must also be taken into
account
...
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in
house or commissioning studies, while governments support the development of
national databases to support LCA
...

• Environmental Impact – LCAs allow organisations to determine the
environmental impact of products
...
By
understanding the effect of the end of the life cycle, the manufacturer can
work on manufacturing processes that reduce the danger to the
environment and make the product safer to dispose of
...
Part of a LCA is to
collect as much pertinent data on a product at various stages of
usefulness, and resale value is part of that data
...

• Operating Costs – operating costs vary depending on the product, and
those costs can have an impact on the organisation’s productivity and
profitability
...
A LCA allows organisations to plan for the expense of
operating equipment at every stage of the product’s life
...
If the current equipment is
operating properly, and the life cycle assessment indicates that the
company can get several more productive years from the equipment, it

may be better to delay an upgrade of the product and invest the money
elsewhere
...



Drawbacks of LCAs
LCA is a powerful tool for analysing commensurable aspects of quantifiable
systems
...
Rigid system boundaries make accounting for changes in the
system difficult
...
The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to
inaccuracy
...
Comparative lifecycle analysis
is often used to determine a better process or product to use
...


Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a procedure that must be followed
for certain types of development before they are granted ‘development consent’
...
The procedure requires the developer to compile an
Environmental Statement (ES) describing the likely significant effects of the
development on the environmental and proposed mitigation measures
...
Its contents, together with any comments, must be taken
into account by the competent authority, for example, the local planning
authority, before it may grant consent
...
The objective of an EIA is to
minimise or avoid adverse environmental effects before they occur; and
incorporate environmental factors into decision making
...
The approach to screening varies from
country to country, but some of the more common approaches include:
• Decision Maker’s Discretion – this applies in systems where the EIA is
assessed on an individual basis
...
The
decision making process may be assisted by a standardised guideline with
or without a significance measure
...


•

•

•

Initial Environmental Examination – this is a low-cost environmental
evaluation of the proposed development and may make use of
information already available
...
It also provides a good source of information for later
stages
...
The list can be sub-divided into different
levels of EIA
...
Annex I projects require an EIA in every case, whilst
Annex II projects require an EIA only if the particular project in question
is judged likely to give rise to significant environmental impacts
...
In essence
they are the reverse of a project list
...
This means that they are very long lists and it takes a long
time to search them to determine if an EIA is required
...
This provides the basis for all of the later stages of the EIA
...
When an EIA is
conducted, it should consider the impact of the development over the whole life
cycle of the project
...
At each of these parts all
potential impacts should be identified, their significance assessed, appropriate
control measures determined and amelioration mechanisms or alternative
design options identified
...


The scope of the EIA should be recorded in the plan for the EIA and this should
be communicated to all parties concerned
...


Baseline Studies
Baseline studies are the main part of the EIA
...
Areas that the baseline studies cover are defined by the scope
of the EIA
...

• Environmental Issues – include biodiversity, pollution, land use, noise
and nuisance, animal behaviour, atmospheric pollution, human health,
loss of habitat and the presence of legally protected habitats and species
...

Economic Issues – include the impact on businesses, creation of jobs and
local infrastructure
...
It may also require individuals
with a broad range of skills, and therefore can be expensive
...
Here the
results from the baseline study are analysed and models representing liely
impacts are developed
...
They are important because they can predict the
magnitude and nature of the environmental impacts arising from the
development
...


Development and Build
The development can proceed once all of the steps in the EIA have been
conducted and approved
...
It is important to note that the potential impacts of
the building process should be included within the EIA, for example, the
transport of materials to and from the site
...
This is also a way of checking that the operational controls put
into place by the EIA are effective
...


EIA Project Examples
Annex I projects which require a full EIA are: oil refineries with >500 tonnes of
production, waste disposal, thermal power stations, nuclear power stations,
radioactive disposal sites, steelworks, road construction and landfill
...


Benefits of EIAs
EIAs support better decision making and results in many benefits, such as:
• Avoidance or minimisation of adverse environmental effects
• Opportunities for public participation and consultation
• Increased protection of human health
• EIAs can help to steer development away from environmental sensitive
sites
...


Drawbacks of EIAs
• EIA is used as a decision aiding tool rather than a decision making tool
...
Improved training for practitioners, guidance on best practice
and continuing research have all been proposed
...
In practice almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate onsite effects
...
Proposals such as airports or shipyards cause
wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered
in EIAs
...
As a result, alternatives that reduce the
negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local
subpopulations, can be assessed
...
The
requirement for SEA comes from the European Directive 2001/42/EC (the SEA
Directive) ‘on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on
the environment’
...


The SEA process requires a formal environmental assessment of certain plans
and programmes which are likely to have significant effects on the environment
...
The
authorities must also make information available on how the environmental
assessment was taken into account, when approving the plan/programme
...
The intention is that SEA will
highlight probable impacts at the development stage in strategic plans
...
It
•
•
•
•

incorporates plans for agriculture, including forestry and fisheries, power and
energy production, transportation, industry, tourism, and waste and water
management
...


SEA will have an impact on planning and development, particularly where there
are environmental implications for neighbouring states in the EU
...
SEA is part of the EU strategy on sustainable
development
...
The SEA may,
however, indicate where an EIA is required
...
It also strengthens the policy, plan and programme
making process, thereby providing a number of immediate and longer-term
benefits for development agencies, planning authorities and governments
...

SEA can help decision makers:
• To achieve environmentally sound and sustainable development
• To strengthen policy, plan and programme making processes
• To save time and money by avoiding costly mistakes
• To improve good governance and build public trust and confidence in
decision-making
...
unece
...
pdf

Cost Benefit Analysis

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths
and weaknesses of alternatives that satisfy transactions, activities or functional
requirements for a business
...



CBA has two main purposes there are: to determine if it is a sound
investment/decision; and to provide a basis for comparing projects (it involves
comparing the total expected cost of each option against the total expected
benefits, to see whether the benefits outweigh the costs, and by how much)
...


Accuracy
The value of a cost-benefit analysis depends on the accuracy of the individual
cost and benefit estimates
...

• Use of subjective impressions by assessment team members
• Inappropriate use of heuristics to derive money costs of the intangible
elements
• Confirmation bias among project supporters (looking for reasons to
proceed)
...

Meaning you can quickly determine whether a project may be viable or
unviable
...


Drawbacks of CBA
• Potential inaccuracies in identifying and quantifying costs and benefits
...

• Inaccurate calculations of present values resulting in misleading analyses
...



Carbon Footprint

The term ‘carbon footprint’ is commonly used as a measure of the amount of
Greenhouse Gasses (GHGs) produced by an individual, an activity or an
organisation
...
As the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of GHGs is
expressed as CO2 equivalents, using the term carbon footprint to include all
GHGs makes sense
...
These standards will help you to measure, report and
verify your GHG emissions
...

PAS 2050 – BSI British Standards has developed a Publicly Availably
Specification (PAS 2050)
...




Primary and Secondary Carbon Footprints
A primary carbon footprint is a measure of an organisation’s direct and energy
indirect emissions
...
A secondary carbon footprint includes other indirect and affected
emissions
...


Primary Footprint (scope 1 & 2)
• Scope 1: Direct Emissions – these are the GHGs resulting from an
organisation’s activities, products and services
...

• Scope 2: Indirect Emissions – these come from the steam, heat or
electricity provided by another company
...

• To comply with ISO 14064 the primary carbon footprint needs to be
measured and reported
...

• Affected emissions – are the GHG emissions coming from the use and
disposal of your products? Clearly it is difficult to control how your
customers use or dispose of your products but you can influence this by
providing appropriate guidance
...

• ISO 14064 gives considerable latitude in the secondary emissions you
measure and report
...


Collecting Baseline Data
To collect a scoped carbon footprint organisations need to establish an inventory
of all sites owned or operated by the organisation (reporting entity) and then
complete the following on a site-by site basis:
• Establish an inventory of all instances where fuel is combusted (scope 1),
e
...
boilers and furnaces
...

Establish an inventory of all production/manufacturing processes which
result in the release of GHG emissions (scope 1)
...
g
...

Obtain purchase records for all GHG sources and compare them with the
data collected above to identify any missing GHG sources
...

Construct a lifecycle model for all products manufactured by the
organisation to identify scope 3 carbon sources related to the
manufacture
...

Obtain purchase records for all products not related to the Manufacture of
products to identify further scope 3 GHG sources
...



Carbon Conversions
Once you have collected all the baseline data it is possible to convert the values
to CO2 equivalents using values obtained from a recognised source, such as the
Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC)
...


Environmental Reporting
Shareholders and potential investors are becoming anxious about the effects that
climate change will have on the profitability of businesses
...
The CDP already obtains
information from corporations about their greenhouse gas emissions for the
world’s largest coalition of investors
...


Organisations should begin a carbon reduction programme and report on their
progress, particularly if they wish to attract future inward investment
...


Increasingly, organisations are also being assessed on their ability to achieve
sustainable development
...

The Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes – these indexes track the financial
performance of the leading sustainability-driven companies worldwide
...

Business in the Community – This UK-based, voluntary scheme reports on
the environmental performance of organisations
...



Advantages of Carbon Footprints
• Encourages us to understand that the environment has limits
...


Disadvantages of Carbon Footprints
• Only a quantitate measure, it gives a snap shot and is limited to the data
put into it and therefore can be weak if there are inaccuracies
...









7
...
1 Recognise when environmental problems and opportunities
exist


Risk v Opportunity
Risk is a situation involving exposure to danger, the potential of losing
something of value, weighed against the potential to gain something of value
...


Environmental aspects can be identified by examining the inputs and outputs of
key operational activities
...

• Determine the aspects with (potential) significant environmental impacts
• Identify why ones can be controlled
• Identify which ones can be influenced (now or in the future)

Direct v Indirect Environmental Aspects
Direct environmental aspects arise from the company’s own activities
(manufacturing, on-site processes)
...
Indirect environmental aspects come from others with
whom organisations in question but can be significant, for example raw material
specifications, energy sourcing, supplier section
...
There are several tools to aid
identification, which include lifecycle analysis, footprinting, EIA, EMS and
environmental review and auditing
...
Planned aspects
involve an organisations’ normal operations
...
g
...
The management of planned and unplanned environmental
aspects supports risk control, continual improvement, pollution control and legal
compliance, which are all essential requirements of an effective EMS
...

Impacts depend on an organisation’s circumstances, for example its activity,
products and service profile, where the activity takes place (proximity to
sensitive environments), the key suppliers (location, distance, type of
materials/energy supplied and the significant environmental impacts of the
supplier)
...
Following EMS principles, the first thing
to do is to examine the products and services that an organisation delivers (the
aspects) and determine how they affect the environment (the impacts)
...
This should identify potential problems such as resources used
and pollution produced
...




7
...
Prioritisation
helps tackle more significant problems quickly or deal with some problems,
which need greater scrutiny
...


Significance is determined by first identifying aspects and impacts (past, present
and future) in normal, abnormal and emergency situations
...
To help with this an aspect
register can be created to help manage regular monitoring
...


The EMS general guidelines (ISO 14004) breaks down significance into 3 parts:
• Environmental criteria (such as impact severity or frequency of the
aspect)
• Applicable legal requirements (like specified waste quantities or
discharge permit limits)
• Stakeholder concerns (for example staff interests, public image, noise or
odour)
...
A formal criteria
can help provide consistency, but this should not be too complex (leaving it
difficult to understand) or too simple (forcing assumptions to be made)
...

Control of the aspect is scored from one (where there is a high degree of
control in place) to five (where there is negligible or no control)
...
The scores are multiplied to give results up to 25 and ranked as
low significance (1-6), medium (8-10) or high (12-25)
...

Although legislation is not included in the numerical scoring system, it is
considered in the aspects register, which, at nearly 300 lines long,
includes a range of aspects, such as energy consumption, use of chemicals
and disposal of hazardous waste
...


Bespoke Risk Matrix
A slightly more detailed system, tailored to the relevant needs and activities of
the organisation, is preferable
...
These
are fairly standard categories, but a tailored approach means they can be
supplemented by others that are important to the organisation, such as:
stakeholder interest, financial impact or business continuity
...
Scoring is then applied on a scale of 1-5, with for instance, ‘minimal’
carbon emissions scoring one, and ‘major’ scoring five
...
When creating an
approach to determine significance it is important to keep it simple, make it
relevant, ensure it is replicable and review it regularly
...
3 Propose sustainable solutions and programmes to address
environmental problems and opportunities

When an organisation has identified it’s aspects and impacts and assessed the
risks they pose, it can seek sustainable solutions to minimise the negative
impacts (e
...
emitting carbon dioxide), and promote the positive impacts (e
...

planting native trees)
...
To manage the process of change that will be required to address these
aspects, organisations should use good management practice and set objects,
targets and tasks for improvement
...


Sustainable Solutions

•

Problem 1 - Climate Change
Possible Solutions:
o Emission trading schemes – legally enforcing countries and
organisations to reduce their greenhouse gases
...


•

Problem 2 - High Energy Use
Possible Solutions:
o Programmable thermostats – cost about $50 or less and can save
organisations significant amounts of money in the long run
...

o Renewable Energy – Install solar photovoltaics, wind turbans or
wave turbines to power operations
...
0 Environmental Performance Improvement – developing,
implementing and monitoring a programme to improve
environmental performance


8
...

An organisation can only improve its performance if it knows where it currently
stands
...
Improvements in
environmental performance can then be measured against this baseline review
...
Probably the
most efficient and effective method is to use Environmental Management System
(EMS) review software
...


Ways to improve environmental performance:
• Hire a team of external and internal sustainability experts to identify
ways to improve environmental performance
...

• Build a new factory/office using an eco-design, which will have a minimal
impact on the local environment
...

• Engaging with stakeholders, including employees and suppliers to
encourage sustainable behaviour
...




8
...
These include:

1
...
This includes a champion or
leader to start things moving
...
The efficient enablers – these elements enable the programme to be
implemented in an organised efficient way
...

3
...

4
...

Through targets and objectives
...
Indicators and goals show if an organisation is on track and
making expected progress
...



It is crucial during the programme planning phase that the organisation consults
with all the relevant people to ensure the plan is realistic and comprehensive
...




8
...
This process involves:

• Decide on a champion and convince management to internalise
sustainable development and create an environmental policy
...
The mechanism should dole out rewards or
withhold rewards based on progress
...

• Create a team who can communicate the sustainability message
throughout the organisation and can collect and compile feedback
(stakeholder engagement) and ensure appropriate action is being taken
first for the most significant impact and then continue implementing
procedures to reduce other impacts
...

• Constantly evaluate by setting indicators and goals which will show if you
are on track or if there is a need to further improve
...




8
...
Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs) are used by organisations to assess whether they
have achieved a measurement target
...


Data Analysis
Data analysis involves looking at: absolute data (raw data); normalised data
(which facilitates benchmarking); trend data (performance over time); and
qualitative data (provides valuable insights into the data)

Environmental Insight & Data
Environmental insight and data, such as GroundSure reports give a large array of
environmental hazards and performance improvement ideas
...


Environmental Management Systems (EMS)
One of the advantages of an Environmental Management System (EMS) is that
there are regular internal, and if part of a certified scheme, external audits to
review progress and ensure that the programme is delivering environmental
improvements
...
They have a key role in
providing the human and financial resources required for improvements
...
0 Communication With Stakeholders

9
...


Internal Stakeholders:
• Employees - most employees want to work for a company that is
sustainable and has a good corporate image
...

• Board Members
• Volunteers

External Stakeholders:
• Suppliers – suppliers want the reassurance that their clients operate a
sound financial and sustainable business
...
An organisation doesn’t
want to be associated with, or procure from, a company that damages the
environment
...
Effective management of a
company’s environmental performance is one sign of good corporate
governance
...

• Regulators such as the Environmental Agency seek to monitor and
improve the environmental performance of organisations
...
Impacts may be in the form of pollution from chimneys, dust and
particles from the site or the movement of vehicles causing noise and
disturbance
...


Organisations can develop stakeholder matrixes, in order to determine who are
the most important stakeholders and how sensitive these groups are to a
particular environmental aspect
...
2 Describe the environmental information needs of
stakeholders


It is important to communicate effectively with all stakeholders and provide
them with appropriate information
...





9
...
This can be through free
consultancy on projects, such as product development, reactive issue resolution,
or proactive issue avoidance
...

Organisations may even use stakeholder communication to influence others
...
Effective communication can lead to
improvements in the organisation’s image, build trust and can resolve issues
faster
...
Effective engagement can enhance stakeholder trust
and heighten an organisation’s reputation by showing transparency and a
willingness to engage
...
4 Describe appropriate communication methods for
stakeholders


There are many ways that an organisation can communicate with their
stakeholders
...
Indirect
communication includes information on the organisation’s website or twitter
account, this may be suitable if the organisation wishes to reach a wider
audience
...
5 Evaluate the effectiveness of communication with
stakeholders


It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of communication with stakeholders,
this can be done by comparing data before the engagement was undertaken with
data after it took place, to see if stakeholder attitude or behaviour has changed
...



Before and after data can be collected by distributing questionnaires or through
direct contact with the stakeholder
...




9
...
All quoted companies have to
measure and report greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
...
The requirement came in to place for company reporting
years ending on or after 30 September 2013
...


Companies have to report Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, in particular for the six
main GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, hydroflurocarbons, nitrous oxide,
perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride expressed as CO2 equivalents
...
For
example emissions from combustion in owned or controlled boilers,
furnaces, vehicles and emissions from chemical production in owned or
controlled process equipment
...
They are the
emissions associated with an organisation’s consumption of purchased
electricity, heat, steam and cooling
...

• Scope 3 – These are indirect emissions, which include GHGs from
activities, products and services you may purchase or outsource such as
transporting your raw materials, products, and staff travelling to and
from work
...


Voluntary Reporting of GHG Emissions
Measuring and reporting GHG emissions is important for organisations wishing
to manage and reduce these emissions
...


There are a number of guides produced by the Government, which help
organisations to report their GHG emissions
...
There is also specific guidance for freight transport
operators and for companies wishing to report emissions from their workrelated travel
...


Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
There are methods that organisations can use to voluntarily report their level of
sustainability, for example through the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
...
It sets out a protocol for organisations to use when
reporting their level of sustainability, using standardised measurements
...
As part of this initiative, organisations operate a
reporting cycle to monitor progress
...
It helps in setting and refining objective and targets
...


Green Claims
Environmental or ‘green’ claims and labels can help consumers to choose
products and services with reduced environmental impacts
...
Green claims and labels must be credible to
consumers, clearly understood, and genuinely reflect a benefit to the
environment
...


EU Ecolabel
The EU Ecolabel Scheme is a voluntary labelling scheme designed to help
consumers identify products with the lowest environmental impact
...


Food Labelling
There are a number of different voluntary labels connected to the environmental
impact of food
...



Legislation
The Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 requires all information to be fair and
honest
...




10
...
1 Outline the Principles of Change Management


Change is an essential element for any organisation to remain competitive and
successful
...
g
...
g
...
Change management is therefore the
administration of this change so that it delivers benefits to the organisation with
minimal disruption
...
The main principles involved in
change management are:

• The scope of the change – describe the desired change and the proposed
direction of the organisation
...

• Explore the options and agree the plan – determine the most
appropriate course of action and collectively create the plan to achieve
change
...

• Review progress – measure movement towards the stated goals, whilst
identifying success and barriers to progress for future reference
...




10
...
The process of initiating this change should follow the
principles of change management
...

Sustainability must then be integrated into the vision, goals, mission and
values of the organisation
...

Clearly define measurable goals and milestones along the process of
change towards sustainability
...

Any goals or values within the organisation, which contradict
sustainability, need to be identified and adapted
...

The current environmental culture should be benchmarked focussing on
behaviour, knowledge/competency and attitudes
...

Record and broadcast success during the change process so the benefits
can be passed on to other areas of the organisation
...

Employees should be involved in defining the direction and scope of the
proposed change to increase involvement and support
...

It is also important to adapt to the various factors which motivate
different people, e
...
financial success, moral values or status etc
...
3 Describe the barriers to creating a positive environmental
culture and a move towards sustainability


There are numerous barrios to achieving change, these include:
• Excessive cost of change
• Organisational reluctance due to the slow pace of change and the
considered nature or lack of credibility in the potential benefits
...

• A fear that change will hinder the success or competitiveness of the
organisation
...

• Resistance due to how the change has come about or resentment for how
it was proposed, leading to obstinacy
...


• Individual subjective – personal values, world view and assumptions
...

• Collective subjective – group culture, predominant fashions and beliefs
...



Barriers to change can be overcome by returning to the planning stage and
making changes account for the issues
...
4 Constructively challenge behaviour that may cause
environmental harm


It is important to challenge objectives and behaviours which may cause
environmental harm in a constructive manner to avoid alienation and losing
support for the proposed change
...
g
...

• Use motivation to get the change, identify what factors resonate with the
target
...

• Understand the reasons behind the current behaviour, use this to help
develop a business case for change
...

• Acknowledge when success is not possible and move to find another
route or a change that is more agreeable
...
Instead of forcing the sales force to use cars
which produced less CO2, she gave them the option to pick cars which used less
CO2 but had more gadgets
...
Instead of comparing engine-sizes, the
sales force now talked about their sat nav and audio systems
...
5 Outline the implications and consequences of decisions


Changes should result in a measurable improvement in the organisation’s
sustainability and a reduction in its impacts on the environment
...


If change is started but then is not followed through this will lead to employees
becoming confused and be more difficult to reintroduce the changes in the
future
...


Environmental Information
Without access to the relevant information it is impossible to make an informed
choice
...
However, in many
cases the provision of information in itself is an insufficient catalyst for change,
especially if there are cost implications

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