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Title: Anatomy and Physiology semester study guide
Description: Based on Marieb and Hoehn and "Anatomy and Physiology" Ninth edition
Description: Based on Marieb and Hoehn and "Anatomy and Physiology" Ninth edition
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a
...
Anterior and poster chamber
1
...
Posterior
i
...
Lens
i
...
( other L/H with no check mark )
7
...
Trochlear nerve (IV)
b
...
Inferior oblique
a
...
Rotates the eye upward and away from the the midline
The Eyes are protected by:
-‐ Accessory structures, including:
o Eyebrows
o Eye lids
o Eyelashes
o Lacrimal apparatus à contains enzyme (lysozyme)
Structures and Functions of Parts of the Eyeball
1
...
Sclera (white of eye)
i
...
Cornea
i
...
Corneoscleral junction
i
...
Middle layer
a
...
Absorbs light, prevents internal reflection; blood vessels nourish retina;
elastic pull keeps lens flat
b
...
Muscle contraction allows accommodation for near vision
c
...
Serves as a diaphragm to control amount of light entering the eye
3
...
Lining of ciliary body and iris
b
...
Neurons, e
...
, ganglion cells, bipolar
1
...
Photoreceptors (rods, cones—most concentrated in the fovea centralis)
1
...
Optic disk (blind spot)
1
...
Cavities
Pg
...
Cochlear duct (scala media; contains endolymph)
2
...
Tectorial membrane
4
...
Inner hair cell
6
...
Vestibular membrane
8
...
Spiral organ
10
...
Spiral ganglion
12
...
Supporting cells
14
...
Afferent nerve fibers
16
...
Helicotrema at apex
New Material L/H
Skeletal Muscles Associated with the Eye
1
...
Facial nerve (VI)
b
...
Levator (Palpebrae, superioris)
a
...
Opens the eye
3
...
Oculomotor nerve (III)
b
...
Inferior rectus
a
...
Rotates the eye downward and toward the midline
5
...
Oculomotor nerve (III)
b
...
Lateral rectus
a
...
Rotates the eye away from the midline
b
...
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) (Eustachian) tube—equalizes pressure on both sides
of tympanic membrane
d
...
Entrance to mastoid antrum in the epitympanic recess
f
...
Inner (bony labyrinth)
a
...
Vestibule—receives pressure waves via oval window; contains utricle and saccule
of vestibular apparatus
c
...
Cochlear nerve
e
...
Ultricle
g
...
573
Membranous labyrinth of the internal ear
1
...
Anterior
b
...
Lateral
2
...
Saccule in vestibule—contains macula, site of hair cell-- receptor for static equilibrium
4
...
P
...
Spiral organ
Sensory Organs for Equilibrium
1
...
Cristae Ampullares in the membranous ampullae
Other parts:
1
...
Facial nerve
3
...
Superior vestibular ganglion
5
...
Cochlear nerve
7
...
557
Problems of Refraction
1
...
Myopic eye (nearsighted) à focal point is in front of retina (uncorrected)
àbi-concave lens moves focal point further back (corrected)
-‐ good near vision
1
...
Suspensory ligaments relaxed
3
...
Hyperopic eye (hypermetropia) (farsighted) à focal point is behind retina (uncorrected)
à bi-concave lens moves focal point
forward (corrected)
-‐ Good far vision
1
...
Suspensory ligaments taut
3
...
558
Photoreceptors of the retina
Opsin complex (only in rods) is called rhidospin
o Function: absorb the retinal (which is a light absorbing molecule derived from vit
...
568
Location and structure of taste buds on the tongue
-‐ Taste buds are associated with fungiform (surface of tongue), foliate (side back of
tongue), and vallate papillae (big circles back of tongue)
Pg
...
External
a
...
Helix
c
...
External acoustic meatus—transmit sound waves through the outer ear to
tympanic membrane
e
...
Middle
a
...
548
Internal Structure of the eye (sagittal section)
---sequence 1-8 of how light rays move through the eye--1
...
3
...
5
...
7
...
Pigmented layer
b
...
Bipolar lens
d
...
Optic nerve
Coats of Eyeball from most outer to inner
1
...
Choroid
3
...
549
Pupil Constriction and Dilation
1
...
Sympathetic stimulation causes radial muscles (dilator pupillae) to contract—dilated
pupil
(Iris has two muscles—dilator and sphincter pupillae)
Pg
...
functional classes
i
...
stimulus type: slow/nonadapting mechanoreceptors
4
...
in the skeletal muscles (specifically the muscles of the extremities)
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: mechanoreceptors—muscle strength and length
5
...
in the tendons
b
...
location: proprioceptors
ii
...
joint kinesthetic receptors
...
in joint capsules of synovial joints
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors
Ch
...
545
The Eye and Accessory Structures
A
...
Eyebrow
2
...
Eyelashes
B
...
Levator palpebrae
2
...
546
The Lacrimal Apparatus
1
...
Lacrimal gland
3
...
Inferior meatus of nasal cavity
New Material:
Ch
...
485/486
General Sensory Receptors Classified by Structure and Function
-‐ Nonencapsulated
1
...
most body tissues-‐-‐densest in connective tissues (such as ligaments and
tendons) and epithelial tissue
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: thermoreceptors (warm and cool), chemoreceptors
(itch, pH, etc
...
2
...
basal layer of the dermis
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: mechanoreceptors (light pressure) –slowly adapting
3
...
in and surround hair follicles
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: mechanoreceptors (light pressure) –rapidly adapting
-‐ Encapsulated
1
...
dermal papillae of hairless skin, specifically the nipples, external genitals,
eyelids, soles of feet, and finger tips
b
...
location: exteroceptors
ii
...
lamellar (pacinian) corpuscles
a
...
They are also found (most abundantly) on
fingers, soles of feet, external genitals, and the nipples
...
Functional classes
i
...
Stimulus type: rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors
3
...
in the deep dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules
-‐
preganglionic
axon,
ganglion,
postganglioni
c axon
cardiac on effector
muscle organs
Nerves involved:
System:
-‐ Norepinephrine
T1-‐-‐-‐L2
-‐ Thoraco Lumbar
-‐ Adrenergic system
-‐ Cranial Nerves
-‐ S2-‐S4 (sacral
foramina)
-‐ cranial sacral
-‐ Cholinergic system
Pg
...
14
L/H
The Nervous System
v Central = brain and spinal chord
v Peripheral = branches from cranial nerves (12 pairs) and spinal nerves (31 pairs) of the CNS
Ø Somatic NS
Ø Autonomic
Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Effector organ:
-‐ Skeletal muscle
-‐ Smooth muscle
-‐ Skin
-‐ Cardiac muscle
-‐ Glands/Viscera
-‐ Skin
It involves:
-‐ Conscious activity
-‐ Unconscious activity
-‐ Voluntary NS
-‐ Involuntary NS
Neurotransmitter released:
-‐ Acetycholine
-‐ Acetycholine (can be
stimulatory)
-‐ Epinephrine (can be
inhibitory)
-‐ Norepinephrine
Type of affect:
Always stimulatory
Can be stimulatory or
inhibitory
Pattern of their pathway:
Has 1 motor neuron (only
Has 2 motor neurons (inside
inside the CNS)
and outside of the CNS)
-‐ Presence of
-‐ 1
...
Postganglionic axon
Ø Autonomic NS
§ Sympathetic NS
§ Parasympathetic NS
Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous
System
Active during:
-‐emergency
-‐ Under ordinary,
-‐ stress
restful conditions
-‐ fear
-‐ threat
-‐ excersize
(fight, fright, flight response)
Neurotransmitter released:
-‐ Epinephrine
-‐ Acetycholine
v Pg
...
507
Branches of Lumbar Plexus
(L1-‐L4):
§ Femoral
§ Obturator
§ Lateral femoral cutaneous
§ Iliohypogastric
§ Ilioguinal
§ genitofemoral
v Pg
...
13
Pg
...
503
Branches of Cervical Plexus
(C1-‐C5):
§ Cutaneous branches (superficial)
• Lesser occipital
• Greater auricular
• Transverse cervical
• Supraclavicular (medial, intermediate, and lateral)
§ Motor branches (deep)
• Ansa cervicalis (superior and inferior roots)
• Segmental and other muscular branches
• phrenic
• Contains projection fibers (ex: fibers of the pyramidal tracts)
§ Pons
• Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
• Cooperates with the medullary respiratory centers to control respiratory rate
and depth
• Contains nuclei of cranial nerves V-‐VIII
• Contains projection fibers
• Conduction pathway b/t higher brain centers and spinal chord (could also be
midbrain not sure cant tell by my notes)
§ Medulla oblongata
• Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and proprioceptors
through nuclei cuneatus and gracilis
• Contains visceral nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory
rate, vomiting, coughing, etc
• Relays sensory information to the cerebellum through inferior olivary nuclei
• Contains nuclei of cranial nerves VIII-‐XII
• Contains projection fibers
• Site of decussation of pyramids
§ Reticular formation
• Maintains cerebral cortical alertness (reticular activating system)
• Filters out repetitive stimuli
• Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
Ø Cerebellum
• Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual
equilibrium pathways
• Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor centers,
resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movements
• Responsible for proper balance and posture
• skeletal muscles
• tendons
• inner ear (NaNee)
• eye
§ cerebellum communicates with other parts of the CNS by 3 pairs of nerve tracts,
called inferior, middle, or superior Cerebellar Penduncles
...
450/451 ~~~~ VVVV impt!!!!
Functions of Major Brain Regions
Ø Cerebral hemisphere
§ Cortical gray matter
• Localizes and interprets sensory inputs
• Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity
• Functions in intellectual and emotional processing
§ Basal nuclei
• Subcortical motor centers
• Help control skeletal muscle movements
Ø Diencephalon
§ Thalamus
• Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex for interpretation
• Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower (subcortical) motor
centers, including cerebellum
• Involved in memory processing
§ Hypothalamus
• Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
• Regulated body temperature, food intake, water balance, thirst, and biological
rhythms and drives
• Regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland
• Acts as an endocrine organ, producing posterior pituitary hormones ADH and
oxytocin
§ Limbic system
• Includes cerebral and diencephalon structures (ex: hypothalamus and anterior
thalamic nuclei)
• Mediates emotional response
• Involved in memory processing
Ø Brain stem
§ Midbrain
• Contains visual (superior colliculli) and auditory (inferior colliculi) reflex centers
• Contains subcortical motor centers (substantia nigra and red nuclei)
• Contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV
§ Thalamus
• Station for sensory impulses, passing upward to the sensory cortex (where
interpretation of the senses is done)
§ Hypothalamus
• Also known as the emotional-‐visceral brain
• Important in the Autonomic Nervous System because it plays a role in the
regulation of:
♦ Body temperature
♦ Body water balance
♦ Metabolism
• Also, it is the center for many drives and emotions:
♦ Appetite
♦ Sex
♦ Thirst
♦ Pain
♦ pleasure
§ epithalamus
• forms the roof of the 3rd ventricle
• contains:
♦ pineal body (gland)
Ø part of the endocrine system
♦ choroid plexus
Ø where Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) is formed
Ø Brain Stem
§ About the size of a thumb
§ Functions:
• Provides pathway for ascending and descending tracts
• Control of vital activities (breathing, B
...
, etc)
• Controls consciousness and awake/sleep pattern by neurons of reticular
formation
♦ Damage of those neurons causes a coma
§ Contains:
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla Oblongata
Ø Cerebellum (Irish Dancer)
§ Large, like cauliflower
§ 2 hemispheres (right and left)
§ composed primary of white matter with a thin layer of gray matter (cerebral cortex)
§ provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity
§ controls balance and equilibrium (keeps body smooth and coordinated) by
controlling these bellow: (when they are/ an action is needed, cerebellum sends a
message to initiate the appropriate corrective measures)
§ complex problem solving
§ judging the consequence of behavior
• Parietal
♦ Sensory areas
Ø Sensations of—involving the skin:
§ Temperature
§ Touch
§ Pressure
§ Pain
♦ Association areas
Ø Functions:
§ Understanding speech
§ Using words to express thoughts and feelings
• Temporal
♦ Sensory areas
Ø hearing
♦ Association areas
Ø Interpret sensory experiences
Ø Remember:
§ visual scenes
§ music
§ other complex sensory patterns
• Occipital
♦ Sensory areas
Ø vision
♦ Association areas
Ø Combine visual images with other sensory experiences
§ Fissures:
• Longitudinal fissure (separates both C
...
S)
• Central fissure (front/parietal)
• Peri-‐occipital fissure (back by occipital lobe)
• Lateral fissure (temporal/all three other lobes)
§ Functions of the cerebral cortex neurons:
• Speech
• Memory
• Logical and emotional responses
• Consciousness
• Interpretation of sensation
• Voluntary movement
§ Basal Nuceli/ Basal Ganglia= several islands/patches of gray matter, buried deep
within the white matter of the CHS
• They help regulate voluntary motor activity/ important in motor coordination
Ø Diencephalon
Classified by function
Type
Sensory neuron
Interneuron (A
...
12
Brain
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
Cerebral hemisphere (Cerebrum)
Diencephalon
Brain stem
Cerebellum hemisphere
Plus some cavities/ventricles
§ Which contain the cerebral spinal fluid
Ø Cerebral Hemisphere (Cerebrum)
§ Gyri—elevated ridges of tissue
• Anatomically and surgically important
§ Fissures/sulci—separated by grooves
• Anatomically and surgically important
§ C
...
Ø As sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell, the resting potential is decreases (i
...
,
depolarization occurs)
...
Step 2: Propogation f the action potential
Ø The positive charge inside the initial patch of sarcolemma changes the permeability of
an adjacent patch, opening voltage-‐gated Na+ channels there
...
Ø Thus, the action potential travels rapidly over the entire sarcolemma
...
Ø This restores the electrical conditions of the resting (polarized) state
...
Ø The ionic concentrations of the resting state are restored later by the sodium-‐potassium
pump
...
-‐ Most
Found mainly in Most unipolar
conducting the PNS
...
CNS for
interpretation
...
402/403
The Action Potential (AP) is a brief change in membrane potential in a “patch” of membrane
that is depolarized by local currents
§ -‐70-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐Resting Potential (RP)/Resting Threshold
• no ions move through voltage gated channels, membrane is not excited
§ -‐55-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐Threshold intensity
• will excited membrane, put into depolarization
§ Depolarization
• Caused by the Na+ flowing into the cell
§ +30-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐back to repolarization
§ Repolarization
• Caused by K+ flowing out of the cell
§ Under -‐70-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐hyperpolarization (undershoot)
• Caused by K+ continuing to leave the cell
Classes of Neurons
Structural class:
neuron type
according to the
number of
processes
extending from
the cell body
Multipolar
Many processes
extend from the
cell body
...
Bipolar
Two processes
extend from the
cell body
...
fused
dendrite
2
...
Major neuron
type in the CNS
...
In
those that do, the
location of the
trigger zone is not
universal
...
Found in
some special
sensory organs
(olfactory
mucosa, eye,
ear)
...
May be one of a
chain of CNS
neurons, or a
single neuron
connecting
sensory and
motor neurons
...
Essentially all
bipolar neurons
are sensory
neurons that
are located in
some special
sense organs
...
388
Ch
...
387
v Nervous System
Ø Most important system for homeostasis (maintain internal environment)
Ø Parts:
§ Brain
§ Spinal chord
§ Nerves
Ø Functioning:
§ Sensory receptor
§ Sensory input (SN)
• Gathers information—transmits it to the brain and spinal chord
§ Integration
• Brain and spinal chord
• Makes thoughts and decisions
§ Motor output
• Effects of the thoughts and decisions
§ Effector
Pg
...
Anular ligament
2
...
Radial (L) collateral ligament
Hip Joint
1
...
Iliofemoral ligament
3
...
Pubofemoral ligament
5
...
L
...
9
L/H on muscle--- in folder—study with pg
...
287)
n When a nerve impulse reaches a neuromuscular junction, Ach is released
...
Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron
2
...
Ca2+ enters the axon terminal moving down its
electrochemical gradient
...
Ca2+ entry causes Ach (a neurotransmitter) to be released by exocytosis
4
...
Ach binding open ion channels in the receptors that allow simultaneous passage of Na+
into the muscle fiber and K+ out of the muscle fiber
...
(move Na+ in, K+ out, causes change in membrane potential called end plate
potential)
6
...
Muscle fiber contraction notes—study w/ page 286
...
iii
...
v
...
2
...
Movement: rotational (uniaxial); supination-pronantion
2
...
Movement: in two planes (biaxial); flexion-extension, adductionabduction, circumduction (no rotation)
2
...
Movement: same as condyloid but freer
2
...
Movement: Wide range of movements (triaxial); flexion-extension,
adduction-reduction, rotation
2
...
Movement: gliding
2
...
Pg
...
Medial meniscus
2
...
Fibular (lateral) ligament
4
...
Anterior cruciate ligament
6
...
Patellar ligament
Pg
...
Coracoacromial ligament
2
...
Transverse humeral ligament
4
...
Acromion
6
...
Glenoid cavity
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels (pg
...
8
Body Joints, Joints vs
...
Fibrous joints
o Lack a joint cavity, bones are close together, joined by fibrous connective tissue
or ligament
o Movement: synarthroses (practically immovable)
i
...
Root of teeth
ii
...
Margins of bones interlock or overlap, held by fibrous connective
tissue
2
...
Syndesmosis
1
...
Location: inferior tibiofibular joint
2
...
Lack a joint cavity; bones held by cartilage
b
...
Synchondrosis
1
...
Location: between epiphyses and diaphysis of long bones
(epysereal plate)
ii
...
Bones joined by disk of fibrocartilage
2
...
Synovial joints
a
...
Movement: diarthroses (freely moveable)
c
...
Hinge (ginglymus)
1
...
most abundant
c
...
4
...
giant cells w/ 50 or more nuclei
b
...
functions in the destruction of bone matrix, which is impt
...
Microscopic Anatomy of the Bone:
- Compact Bone: the structural unit of compact bone is called the osteon or the Haversian
system: many of these units are cemented together in order to form substances of
compact bone
...
Lamellae: the lamellae of each osteon are cylindrical and are aligned
parallel to the long axis of the central canal—a ring of hard, calcified
matrix
...
Lacunae: these are small spaces between the lamellae, which contain
osteocytes
...
Canaliculi: these are spaces that connect lacunae with one another and,
eventually, with the central canal
...
Central (Haversian) canals: run longitudinally through the bone, that
contains one or more blood vessels that supply the osteon
...
Perforating (Volkman’s) canals: run at right angles to the long axis of the
bone
...
- Spongy Bone: in contrast to compact bone, spongy bone does not contain osteon
...
The spaces between the
trabeculae are filled with red marrow, which produces blood cells
...
- Sex Hormones (several estrogens and testosterones): increase bone-building activity
of osteoblasts
...
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (Blood CA up): increases the number and activity of
osteoclasts, pro-motes recovery of Ca2+ from urine, and promotes formation of calcitriol
...
Ch
...
6
...
175)
The bones and cartilage of the human skeleton
1
...
nose-- cartilages in nose-- hyaline
3
...
ribs—coastal cartilage-- hyaline
5
...
epiglottis—elastic
7
...
larynx—axial and hyaline
9
...
meniscus (pad-like cartilage in knee joint)—fibrocartilage
11
...
- Epiphysis: (proximal and distal) expanded portion at each end of the bone, composed of
a thin layer of compact bone, filled with spngy bone
...
- Compact bone: the wall of the diaphysis is composed mainly of tightly packed tissue
called compact bone
...
- Medullary cavity: a hollow central cavity in the shaft with with adipose tissue (no blood
cells in adult), is called yellow marrow
...
- Endosteum: a thin, delicate layer of cells, lining the shaft
- Articular cartilage: is the covering of epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum
Bone Cells L/H
1
...
unspecialized cells derived from mesenchyme
present in the periosteum and endosteum
b
...
osteoblasts (immature)
a
...
no mitotic activity
c
...
osteocytes (mature)
a
...
mecrocrine glands= a fluid product that is released through the cell membrane
a
...
apocrine glands=cellular product and portions of the free ends of glandular cells that
are pinched off during secretion
3
...
ex: sebaceous glands of the skin
Cutaneous/ Skin Glands—
Eccrine Sweat Glands
- abundant sweat glands, with odorless secretion
...
Respond primarily to elevated body temperature
...
- Produces protein and lipid >>> (by bacterial action) becomes odoriferous
o Function: wet skin during pain, fear, emotional upset, and sexual arousal
o Location: near hair follicles in armpit, groin, and near nipples
Sebaceous glands
- group of specialized epithelial cells
o function:
§ keep hair soft, pliable, and waterproof
§ produces sebum (dead cells and fatty substances) that lubricates the skin
and hair
• seborrhea= excessive sebum production
o location= near or connected to hair follicles, everywhere but on palms and soles
Ceruminous glands
- modified apocrine glands
...
Secrete milk >> located in the breast
iii
...
v
...
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
4
...
5
Gig
...
1 (pg
...
153)
--from most outer to inner-1
...
Lucidum
3
...
Stratum spinosum
5
...
Simple branched
alveolar (sebaceous
–oil—glands)
2
...
Mecrocrine glands secrete their products by exocytosis
2
...
Classes of Connective Tissues (pg
...
Connective tissue proper
a
...
Areolar
ii
...
reticular
b
...
Regular
ii
...
elastic
2
...
Hyaline cartilage
b
...
fibrocartilage
3
...
Compact bone
b
...
Blood
Classes of Membranes (pg
...
Cutaneous
a
...
Mucous
a
...
Mucosa of nasal cavity
ii
...
Esophagus lining
iv
...
Serous
a
...
Parietal pericardium
ii
...
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
a
...
b
...
Mucus propulsion by ciliary
action
...
location: non-ciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large
glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract
...
stratified squamous epithelium
a
...
b
...
c
...
6
...
description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells
cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on
degree of organ stretch
...
function: stretched readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ
...
location: lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra
...
124, 126)
1
...
They
produce hormones which secrete by exocytosis directly into the extracellular space
2
...
(unicellular and multicellular glands)
...
Simple tubular
(intestinal glands)
2
...
Simple alveolar (no
important example
in humans)
Compound duct structure
(duct branches)
1
...
Compound alveolar
(mammary glands)
Parts of nucleus
Nucleus
Structure
Largest organelle, surrounded
by the nuclear envelope;
contains fluid nucleoplasm,
nucleoli, and chromatin
...
Outer
membrane continuous with
the endoplasmic reticulum
...
Granular, threadlike material
composed of DNA and
histone proteins
Chromatin
function
DNA replication
...
Site of ribosome subunit
manufacture
...
DNA constitutes the genes
Ch
...
simple squamous epithelium
a
...
b
...
c
...
2
...
description: single layer of cube-like cells with large, spherical central nuclei
...
function: secretion and absorption
c
...
3
...
description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear
cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
...
function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances
...
c
...
Microtubules (in
cytoskeleton)
Cylindrical structures made
of tubulin proteins
Microfilaments (in
cytoskeleton)
Fine filaments composed of
the protein actin
Intermediate filaments (in
cytoskeleton)
Protein fibers; composition
varies
centrioles
Paired cylindrical bodies,
each composed of nine
triplets of microtubules
inclusions
Varied; includes stored
nutrients such as lipid
droplets and glycogen
granules, protein crystals,
pigment granules
Cellular extensions
Cilia
Structure
Short cell-surface projections;
each cilium composed of nine
pairs of microtubules
surrounding a central pair
Like cilium, but longer; only
example in humans is the
sperm tail
Tubular extensions of the
plasma membrane; contain a
bundle of actin filaments
Flagellum
microvili
Support the cell and give it
shape
...
Form centrioles
and cilia and flagella, if
present
...
The stable cytoskeletal
elements; resist mechanical
forces acting on the cell
As part of the centrosome,
organize a microtubule
network during mitosis (cell
division) to form the spindle
and asters
...
Storage for nutrients, wastes,
and cell products
Functions
Coordinated movement
creates unidirectional current
that propels substances across
cell surfaces
Propels the cell
Increase surface area for
absorption
Cytoplasm (cellular region
between the nuclear and the
plasma membrane
...
Free of attached
to rough endoplasmic
reticulum
...
Externally
studded with ribosomes
...
Proteins are bound in vesicles
for transport to the Golgi
apparatus and other sites
...
Sites of lipid and steroid
(cholesterol) synthesis, lipid
metabolism, and drug
detoxification
Packages, modifies, and
segregates proteins for
secretion from the cell,
inclusion in lysosomes, and
incorporation into the plasma
membrane (protein post
office)
...
The most important enzyme,
catalase, breaks down
hydrogen peroxide
...
§ Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis (movement of solids)
o Energy source: ATP
o Description: cell eating: a large external particle (proteins,
bacteria, dead cell debris) is surrounded by a “seizing foot”
and becomes enclosed in a plasma membrane sac
o Examples: in the human body, occurs primarily in
protective phagocytes (some white blood cells,
macrophages)
• Pinocytosis
o Energy source: ATP
o Description: cell drinking: plasma membrane sinks beneath
an external fluid droplet containing small solutes;
membrane edges fuse, forming a fluid-filled vesicle
o Examples: occurs in most cells; important for taking in
solutes by absorptive cells of the kidney and intestine
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o Energy source: ATP
o Description: selective endocytosis process; external
substance binds to membrane receptors, and coated pits are
formed
o examples: means of intake of some hormones,
cholesterol, iron, and other molecules
Table 3
...
94, 95, and 96)
Plasma membrane
Structure
Membrane made of a double
layer of lipids (phospholipids,
cholesterol, and so on) within
which proteins are embedded
...
Most externally facing
proteins and some lipids have
attached sugar groups
...
Maintains a resting
potential that is essential for
functioning of excitable cells
...
L/H on Transport Processes:
- Passive Processes (ATP NOT used)
o Simple diffusion
§ Energy source: kinetic energy
§ Description: net movement of particles (ions, molecules, etc
...
§ Examples: movement of fats, oxygen, carbon dioxide through the lipid
portion of the membrane, and ions through protein channels under
certain conditions
...
• Dialysis
o Facilitated diffusionz
§ Energy source: kinetic energy
§ Description: same as simple diffusion, but the diffusing substance is
attached to a lipid-soluble membrane carrier protein
§ Examples: movement of glucose into cells
o Filtration
§ Energy source: hydrostatic pressure
§ Description: movement of water and solutes through a semipermeable
membrane from a region of higher hydrostatic pressure that is, along, a
pressure gradient
...
- Active Processes (ATP used)
o Active transport (solute pumping)
§ Energy source: ATP (cellular energy)
§ Description: movement of a substance through a membrane against a
concentration (or electrochemical) gradient; requires a membrane carrier
protein
§ Examples: movement of amino acids and most ions across the
membrane
o Bulk Transport
§ Exocytosis
• Energy source: ATP
• Description: secretion or ejection of substances from a cell; the
substance is enclosed in a membranous vesicle, which fuses with
Cell Cycle (pg
...
DNAcontaining material is in the form of chromatin, the nuclear envelope and one or
more nucleoli are intact and visible
...
§ 6-8 hours
o G2: materials needed for cell division are synthesized and growth continues
...
o Mitosis (PMAT)
§ Prophase
• Chromatin condense forming chromosomes, which each contain
two sister chromatids, held together at the centromere
...
iii
...
Purine (a five membered ring fused to a six membered ring)
i
...
Guanine (G)
2
...
Ribose is the pentose in RNA
b
...
Phosphate group:
a
...
PH balance
- (-7
...
45 +, ph rises)
- ph scale measures acid (H)/base (OH) concentration
- ranges from 0 to 14
- at 7 H and OH concentration is equal (distilled water)
- < 7 acidic (HCl)
- >7 basic (NaOH)
- human blood pH= 7
...
45
- a change in one unit of pH is a ten-fold change in the number of H atoms
Molecule: when two or more of the same or different atoms chemically combine together
- same element (H atom plus H atom = H2)
- different elements (4H plus C à CH4 (methane))
Compound: is a substance that can be broken down into two or more different elements by
chemical means
Ex: H2O, CH4, sugar, and most drugs
Chemical Compounds in the Human Body (all chemicals found in the body fall into one of the
two major classes of molecules
1
...
they are a few simple molecules, except those that lack carbon atoms
b
...
ex: O2, CO2, H2O, and many salts, acids, and bases
2
...
they contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms
b
...
in the body, ex: carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and adenosinetriphophate
(ATP)
-carbon chains are the backbone for many substances that are living cells
-C is a unique element in metabolism because it has 4 electrons in the outer shell à it can
combine with a variety of atoms
-mostly or entirely covalent bonds
Ch
...
I
...
A base (nitrogen base): there are two types of nb
a
...
Cytosine ©
ii
...
Straight or
folded
Carbohydrates: organic molecules which are made of sugars and their polymers, ex: sugars,
starch, glycogen, and cellulose
- only 1-3 % of the body weight
- contain C, H, and O with slight variations
- ratio of H and O à 2 H: O à 2:1 (same as water)
- Glucose (C6H12O6) Fructose (C6H12O6) Sucrose (C12H22O11)
- Monosaccharides: monomers or building block molecules are simple sugars
- Are classified based upon the number of simple sugars (mono, di, poly)
- 1
...
Glucose is the most common
...
Disaccharides: (double sugars)
o two monosaccharides which combine by dehydration synthesis (glucose +
fructose à sucrose + water)
o ex: sucrose (glucose and fructose) cane sugar (table sugar)
o ex: (glucose and galactose) found in milk
o ex: (glucose and glucose) malt sugar (in brewing beer)
o these molecules are too big to pass through the cell membrane à broken into
mono-- à by hydrolysis ( + H2O)
- 3
...
Energy storage purpose
• starch (in plants)
• glycogen (in animals)—stored in liver and skeletal muscles
(like di--, poly--, can be broken down into mono—through hydrolysis
(+H2O) when they are needed as in a low glucose level
§ 2
...
48)
a
...
Glycine (simplest amino acid-- amine group + acid group + H)
c
...
Lysine (a basic amino acid—has an amine group (-NH2) in the R group-- amine group +
acid group + (CH2)3CH2(NH2))
e
...
52)
1
...
The E-S complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the product (energy is
absorbed, bond is formed, water is released)
3
...
54)
- The unit of DNA is the nucleotide, which is composed of a deoxyribose sugar molecule
linked to a phosphate group, with a base attached to the sugar
...
o Ex: Adenine nucleotide (phosphate + sugar: deoxyribose + base: adenine) ---- H
bond--- Thymine nucleotide (Thymine (T) + sugar + phosphate)
- DNA is a coiled double polymer of nucleotides (a double helix)
...
The rungs are
formed by the binding together of complementary bases (A-T and G-C) by hydrogen
bonds
...
3 Comparison of DNA and RNA (pg
...
24)
1
...
Energy: the capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion
...
26)
- Major (96
...
9 %)
o Calcium
o Phosphorus
o Potassium
o Sulfur
o Sodium
o Chlorine
o Magnesium
o Iodine
o Iron
- Trace (Less than 0
...
pH Scale (pg
...
5 = oven cleaner, lye
10
...
5 = household ammonia
9
...
4 = blood
6
...
6 = milk
5 = black coffee
2
...
5 = wine
2 = lemon juice; gastric juice
0 = 1 M hydrochloric acid
Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis (pg
...
Dehydration synthesis: monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and
removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation
2
...
3
...
1
99
Table 1
...
12
- Orientation and Directional Terms
Term
Superior (cranial) (not used
for limbs)
Inferior (caudal) (not used for
limbs)
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal (posterior)
Medial
Lateral
Intermediate
Proximal (only used for
limbs)
Distal (only used for limbs)
Superficial (external)
Deep (internal)
Definition
Toward the head end or upper
part of a structure or the
body; above
Away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below
Toward or at the front of the
body; in front of
Toward or at the back of the
body; behind
Toward or at the midline of
the body; on the inner side of
Away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of
Between a more medial and a
a more lateral structure
The navel is inferior to the
chin
The breastbone is anterior to
the spine
The heart is posterior to the
breastbone
The heart it medial to the arm
The arms are lateral to the
chest
The collarbone is
intermediate between the
breastbone and shoulder
The elbow is proximal to the
wrist
Closer to the origin of the
body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
Farther from the origin of a
The knee is distal to the thigh
body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
Toward or at the body surface The skin is superficial to the
skeletal muscles
Away from the body surface; The lungs are deep to the skin
more internal
Pg
...
Frontal plane (anterior/posterior)
2
...
Transverse plane (upper/lower)
4
...
angles)
Ch
Title: Anatomy and Physiology semester study guide
Description: Based on Marieb and Hoehn and "Anatomy and Physiology" Ninth edition
Description: Based on Marieb and Hoehn and "Anatomy and Physiology" Ninth edition