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---

a
...
  Anterior and poster chamber
1
...
  Posterior
i
...
  Lens
i
...


( other L/H with no check mark )

7
...
  Trochlear nerve (IV)
b
...
  Inferior oblique
a
...
  Rotates the eye upward and away from the the midline

The Eyes are protected by:
-­‐   Accessory structures, including:
o   Eyebrows
o   Eye lids
o   Eyelashes
o   Lacrimal apparatus à contains enzyme (lysozyme)
Structures and Functions of Parts of the Eyeball
1
...
  Sclera (white of eye)
i
...
  Cornea
i
...
  Corneoscleral junction
i
...
  Middle layer
a
...
  Absorbs light, prevents internal reflection; blood vessels nourish retina;
elastic pull keeps lens flat
b
...
  Muscle contraction allows accommodation for near vision
c
...
  Serves as a diaphragm to control amount of light entering the eye
3
...
  Lining of ciliary body and iris
b
...
  Neurons, e
...
, ganglion cells, bipolar
1
...
  Photoreceptors (rods, cones—most concentrated in the fovea centralis)
1
...
  Optic disk (blind spot)
1
...
  Cavities

Pg
...
  Cochlear duct (scala media; contains endolymph)
2
...
  Tectorial membrane
4
...
  Inner hair cell
6
...
  Vestibular membrane
8
...
  Spiral organ
10
...
 Spiral ganglion
12
...
 Supporting cells
14
...
 Afferent nerve fibers
16
...
 Helicotrema at apex

New Material L/H
Skeletal Muscles Associated with the Eye
1
...
  Facial nerve (VI)
b
...
  Levator (Palpebrae, superioris)
a
...
  Opens the eye
3
...
  Oculomotor nerve (III)
b
...
  Inferior rectus
a
...
  Rotates the eye downward and toward the midline
5
...
  Oculomotor nerve (III)
b
...
  Lateral rectus
a
...
  Rotates the eye away from the midline

b
...
  Pharyngotympanic (auditory) (Eustachian) tube—equalizes pressure on both sides
of tympanic membrane
d
...
  Entrance to mastoid antrum in the epitympanic recess
f
...
  Inner (bony labyrinth)
a
...
  Vestibule—receives pressure waves via oval window; contains utricle and saccule
of vestibular apparatus
c
...
  Cochlear nerve
e
...
  Ultricle
g
...
573
Membranous labyrinth of the internal ear
1
...
  Anterior
b
...
  Lateral
2
...
  Saccule in vestibule—contains macula, site of hair cell-- receptor for static equilibrium
4
...
P
...
  Spiral organ
Sensory Organs for Equilibrium
1
...
  Cristae Ampullares in the membranous ampullae
Other parts:
1
...
  Facial nerve
3
...
  Superior vestibular ganglion
5
...
  Cochlear nerve
7
...
557
Problems of Refraction
1
...
  Myopic eye (nearsighted) à focal point is in front of retina (uncorrected)
àbi-concave lens moves focal point further back (corrected)
-­‐   good near vision
1
...
  Suspensory ligaments relaxed
3
...
  Hyperopic eye (hypermetropia) (farsighted) à focal point is behind retina (uncorrected)
à bi-concave lens moves focal point
forward (corrected)
-­‐   Good far vision
1
...
  Suspensory ligaments taut
3
...
558
Photoreceptors of the retina
  Opsin complex (only in rods) is called rhidospin
o   Function: absorb the retinal (which is a light absorbing molecule derived from vit
...
568
Location and structure of taste buds on the tongue
-­‐   Taste buds are associated with fungiform (surface of tongue), foliate (side back of
tongue), and vallate papillae (big circles back of tongue)

Pg
...
  External
a
...
  Helix
c
...
  External acoustic meatus—transmit sound waves through the outer ear to
tympanic membrane
e
...
  Middle
a
...
548
Internal Structure of the eye (sagittal section)
---sequence 1-8 of how light rays move through the eye--1
...
 
3
...
 
5
...
 
7
...
  Pigmented layer
b
...
  Bipolar lens
d
...
  Optic nerve

Coats of Eyeball from most outer to inner
1
...
  Choroid
3
...
549
Pupil Constriction and Dilation
1
...
  Sympathetic stimulation causes radial muscles (dilator pupillae) to contract—dilated
pupil
(Iris has two muscles—dilator and sphincter pupillae)
Pg
...
  functional  classes
i
...
  stimulus  type:  slow/nonadapting  mechanoreceptors
4
...
  in  the  skeletal  muscles  (specifically  the  muscles  of  the  extremities)
...
  Functional  classes
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  mechanoreceptors—muscle  strength  and  length
5
...
  in the tendons
b
...
  location: proprioceptors
ii
...
  joint  kinesthetic  receptors
...
  in  joint  capsules  of  synovial  joints
...
  Functional  classes
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  mechanoreceptors,  nociceptors
 
 
Ch
...
545
The Eye and Accessory Structures
A
...
  Eyebrow
2
...
  Eyelashes
B
...
  Levator palpebrae
2
...
546
The Lacrimal Apparatus
1
...
  Lacrimal gland
3
...
  Inferior meatus of nasal cavity

New Material:
Ch
...
485/486
General Sensory Receptors Classified by Structure and Function
-­‐   Nonencapsulated
1
...
  most  body  tissues-­‐-­‐densest  in  connective  tissues  (such  as  ligaments  and  
tendons)  and  epithelial  tissue
...
  Functional  classes
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  thermoreceptors  (warm  and  cool),  chemoreceptors  
(itch,  pH,  etc
...

2
...
  basal  layer  of  the  dermis
...
  Functional  classes
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  mechanoreceptors  (light  pressure)  –slowly  adapting
3
...
  in  and  surround  hair  follicles
...
  Functional  classes  
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  mechanoreceptors  (light  pressure)  –rapidly  adapting
-­‐   Encapsulated  
1
...
  dermal  papillae  of  hairless  skin,  specifically  the  nipples,  external  genitals,  
eyelids,  soles  of  feet,  and  finger  tips
b
...
  location:  exteroceptors  
ii
...
  lamellar  (pacinian)  corpuscles
a
...
 They  are  also  found  (most  abundantly)  on  
fingers,  soles  of  feet,  external  genitals,  and  the  nipples
...
  Functional  classes
i
...
  Stimulus  type:  rapidly  adapting  mechanoreceptors  
3
...
  in  the  deep  dermis,  hypodermis,  and  joint  capsules

-­‐
preganglionic  
axon,  
ganglion,  
postganglioni
c  axon  
 
 
 

cardiac   on  effector  
muscle   organs  

Nerves  involved:  

System:  

-­‐   Norepinephrine  
T1-­‐-­‐-­‐L2  

-­‐   Thoraco  Lumbar  
-­‐   Adrenergic  system  

-­‐   Cranial  Nerves  
-­‐   S2-­‐S4  (sacral  
foramina)  
 
-­‐   cranial  sacral  
-­‐   Cholinergic  system  

Pg
...
14
L/H  
 
The  Nervous  System  
v   Central  =  brain  and  spinal  chord  
v   Peripheral  =  branches  from  cranial  nerves  (12  pairs)  and  spinal  nerves  (31  pairs)  of  the  CNS  
Ø   Somatic  NS  
Ø   Autonomic  
 
 
Somatic  Nervous  System  
Autonomic  Nervous  System  
Effector  organ:  
-­‐   Skeletal  muscle  
-­‐   Smooth  muscle  
-­‐   Skin  
-­‐   Cardiac  muscle  
-­‐   Glands/Viscera  
-­‐   Skin    
It  involves:  
-­‐   Conscious  activity  
-­‐   Unconscious  activity  
-­‐   Voluntary  NS  
-­‐   Involuntary  NS  
Neurotransmitter  released:  
-­‐   Acetycholine  
-­‐   Acetycholine  (can  be  
stimulatory)  
-­‐   Epinephrine  (can  be  
inhibitory)    
-­‐   Norepinephrine  
Type  of  affect:  
Always  stimulatory  
Can  be  stimulatory  or  
inhibitory  
Pattern  of  their  pathway:  
Has  1  motor  neuron  (only  
Has  2  motor  neurons  (inside  
inside  the  CNS)  
and  outside  of  the  CNS)  
-­‐   Presence  of    
-­‐   1
...
 Postganglionic  axon  
 
Ø   Autonomic  NS  
§   Sympathetic  NS  
§   Parasympathetic  NS  
 
 
Sympathetic  Nervous  System   Parasympathetic  Nervous  
System  
Active  during:  
-­‐emergency  
-­‐   Under  ordinary,  
-­‐  stress  
restful  conditions  
-­‐  fear  
-­‐  threat  
-­‐  excersize  
(fight,  fright,  flight  response)  
Neurotransmitter  released:  
-­‐   Epinephrine  
-­‐   Acetycholine  

v   Pg
...
 507    
Branches  of  Lumbar  Plexus  
(L1-­‐L4):  
§   Femoral  
§   Obturator  
§   Lateral  femoral  cutaneous  
§   Iliohypogastric  
§   Ilioguinal  
§   genitofemoral  
 
 
v   Pg
...
13
Pg
...
 503    
Branches  of  Cervical  Plexus  
(C1-­‐C5):  
§   Cutaneous  branches  (superficial)  
•   Lesser  occipital  
•   Greater  auricular  
•   Transverse  cervical  
•   Supraclavicular  (medial,  intermediate,  and  lateral)  
§   Motor  branches  (deep)  
•   Ansa  cervicalis  (superior  and  inferior  roots)  
•   Segmental  and  other  muscular  branches  
•   phrenic  

•   Contains  projection  fibers  (ex:  fibers  of  the  pyramidal  tracts)  
§   Pons  
•   Relays  information  from  the  cerebrum  to  the  cerebellum  
•   Cooperates  with  the  medullary  respiratory  centers  to  control  respiratory  rate  
and  depth  
•   Contains  nuclei  of  cranial  nerves  V-­‐VIII  
•   Contains  projection  fibers  
•   Conduction  pathway  b/t  higher  brain  centers  and  spinal  chord  (could  also  be  
midbrain  not  sure  cant  tell  by  my  notes)  
§   Medulla  oblongata  
•   Relays  ascending  sensory  pathway  impulses  from  skin  and  proprioceptors  
through  nuclei  cuneatus  and  gracilis  
•   Contains  visceral  nuclei  controlling  heart  rate,  blood  vessel  diameter,  respiratory  
rate,  vomiting,  coughing,  etc  
•   Relays  sensory  information  to  the  cerebellum  through  inferior  olivary  nuclei  
•   Contains  nuclei  of  cranial  nerves  VIII-­‐XII  
•   Contains  projection  fibers  
•   Site  of  decussation  of  pyramids  
§   Reticular  formation  
•   Maintains  cerebral  cortical  alertness  (reticular  activating  system)  
•   Filters  out  repetitive  stimuli  
•   Helps  regulate  skeletal  and  visceral  muscle  activity  
Ø   Cerebellum  
•   Processes  information  from  cerebral  motor  cortex,  proprioceptors,  and  visual  
equilibrium  pathways  
•   Provides  “instructions”  to  cerebral  motor  cortex  and  subcortical  motor  centers,  
resulting  in  smooth,  coordinated  skeletal  muscle  movements  
•   Responsible  for  proper  balance  and  posture  
 

•   skeletal  muscles  
•   tendons  
•   inner  ear  (NaNee)  
•   eye  
§   cerebellum  communicates  with  other  parts  of  the  CNS  by  3  pairs  of  nerve  tracts,  
called  inferior,  middle,  or  superior  Cerebellar  Penduncles
...
 450/451  ~~~~  VVVV  impt!!!!  
Functions  of  Major  Brain  Regions  
Ø   Cerebral  hemisphere  
§   Cortical  gray  matter  
•   Localizes  and  interprets  sensory  inputs  
•   Controls  voluntary  and  skilled  skeletal  muscle  activity  
•   Functions  in  intellectual  and  emotional  processing  
§   Basal  nuclei  
•   Subcortical  motor  centers  
•   Help  control  skeletal  muscle  movements  
Ø   Diencephalon  
§   Thalamus  
•   Relays  sensory  impulses  to  cerebral  cortex  for  interpretation  
•   Relays  impulses  between  cerebral  motor  cortex  and  lower  (subcortical)  motor  
centers,  including  cerebellum  
•   Involved  in  memory  processing  
§   Hypothalamus  
•   Chief  integration  center  of  autonomic  (involuntary)  nervous  system  
•   Regulated  body  temperature,  food  intake,  water  balance,  thirst,  and  biological  
rhythms  and  drives  
•   Regulates  hormonal  output  of  anterior  pituitary  gland  
•   Acts  as  an  endocrine  organ,  producing  posterior  pituitary  hormones  ADH  and  
oxytocin  
§   Limbic  system  
•   Includes  cerebral  and  diencephalon  structures  (ex:  hypothalamus  and  anterior  
thalamic  nuclei)  
•   Mediates  emotional  response  
•   Involved  in  memory  processing  
Ø   Brain  stem  
§   Midbrain  
•   Contains  visual  (superior  colliculli)  and  auditory  (inferior  colliculi)  reflex  centers  
•   Contains  subcortical  motor  centers  (substantia  nigra  and  red  nuclei)  
•   Contains  nuclei  for  cranial  nerves  III  and  IV  

§   Thalamus  
•   Station  for  sensory  impulses,  passing  upward  to  the  sensory  cortex  (where  
interpretation  of  the  senses  is  done)  
§   Hypothalamus  
•   Also  known  as  the  emotional-­‐visceral  brain  
•   Important  in  the  Autonomic  Nervous  System  because  it  plays  a  role  in  the  
regulation  of:    
♦   Body  temperature  
♦   Body  water  balance  
♦   Metabolism  
•   Also,  it  is  the  center  for  many  drives  and  emotions:  
♦   Appetite  
♦   Sex  
♦   Thirst  
♦   Pain  
♦   pleasure  
§   epithalamus  
•   forms  the  roof  of  the  3rd  ventricle  
•   contains:  
♦   pineal  body  (gland)  
Ø   part  of  the  endocrine  system  
♦   choroid  plexus  
Ø   where  Cerebral  Spinal  Fluid  (CSF)  is  formed  
Ø   Brain  Stem  
§   About  the  size  of  a  thumb  
§   Functions:  
•   Provides  pathway  for  ascending  and  descending  tracts  
•   Control  of  vital  activities  (breathing,  B
...
,  etc)  
•   Controls  consciousness  and  awake/sleep  pattern  by  neurons  of  reticular  
formation  
♦   Damage  of  those  neurons  causes  a  coma  
§   Contains:  
•   Midbrain  
•   Pons  
•   Medulla  Oblongata  
Ø   Cerebellum  (Irish  Dancer)  
§   Large,  like  cauliflower  
§   2  hemispheres  (right  and  left)  
§   composed  primary  of  white  matter  with  a  thin  layer  of  gray  matter  (cerebral  cortex)  
§   provides  precise  timing  for  skeletal  muscle  activity  
§   controls  balance  and  equilibrium  (keeps  body  smooth  and  coordinated)  by  
controlling  these  bellow:  (when  they  are/  an  action  is  needed,  cerebellum  sends  a  
message  to  initiate  the  appropriate  corrective  measures)  

§   complex  problem  solving  
§   judging  the  consequence  of  behavior  
•   Parietal  
♦   Sensory  areas  
Ø   Sensations  of—involving  the  skin:  
§   Temperature  
§   Touch  
§   Pressure    
§   Pain    
♦   Association  areas  
Ø   Functions:  
§   Understanding  speech  
§   Using  words  to  express  thoughts  and  feelings  
•   Temporal    
♦   Sensory  areas  
Ø   hearing  
♦   Association  areas  
Ø   Interpret  sensory  experiences  
Ø   Remember:    
§   visual  scenes  
§   music  
§   other  complex  sensory  patterns  
•   Occipital  
♦   Sensory  areas  
Ø   vision  
♦   Association  areas  
Ø   Combine  visual  images  with  other  sensory  experiences  
§   Fissures:  
•   Longitudinal  fissure  (separates  both  C
...
S)  
•   Central  fissure  (front/parietal)  
•   Peri-­‐occipital  fissure  (back  by  occipital  lobe)  
•   Lateral  fissure  (temporal/all  three  other  lobes)  
§   Functions  of  the  cerebral  cortex  neurons:  
•   Speech  
•   Memory  
•   Logical  and  emotional  responses  
•   Consciousness  
•   Interpretation  of  sensation  
•   Voluntary  movement  
§   Basal  Nuceli/  Basal  Ganglia=  several  islands/patches  of  gray  matter,  buried  deep  
within  the  white  matter  of  the  CHS  
•   They  help  regulate  voluntary  motor  activity/  important  in  motor  coordination  
Ø   Diencephalon  

Classified  by  function  
Type  
Sensory  neuron  

Interneuron  (A
...
12
Brain    
Ø  
Ø  
Ø  
Ø  
Ø  
 

Cerebral  hemisphere  (Cerebrum)  
Diencephalon  
Brain  stem  
Cerebellum  hemisphere  
Plus  some  cavities/ventricles  
§   Which  contain  the  cerebral  spinal  fluid  

Ø   Cerebral  Hemisphere  (Cerebrum)  
§   Gyri—elevated  ridges  of  tissue  
•   Anatomically  and  surgically  important  
§   Fissures/sulci—separated  by  grooves  
•   Anatomically  and  surgically  important  
§   C
...
 
Ø   As  sodium  ions  diffuse  rapidly  into  the  cell,  the  resting  potential  is  decreases  (i
...
,  
depolarization  occurs)
...
 
Step  2:  Propogation  f  the  action  potential  
Ø   The  positive  charge  inside  the  initial  patch  of  sarcolemma  changes  the  permeability  of  
an  adjacent  patch,  opening  voltage-­‐gated  Na+  channels  there
...
 
Ø   Thus,  the  action  potential  travels  rapidly  over  the  entire  sarcolemma
...
 
Ø   This  restores  the  electrical  conditions  of  the  resting  (polarized)  state
...
   
Ø   The  ionic  concentrations  of  the  resting  state  are  restored  later  by  the  sodium-­‐potassium  
pump
...
 
-­‐   Most  
Found  mainly  in   Most  unipolar  
conducting   the  PNS
...
  CNS  for  
interpretation
...
 402/403  
The  Action  Potential  (AP)  is  a  brief  change  in  membrane  potential  in  a  “patch”  of  membrane  
that  is  depolarized  by  local  currents  
§   -­‐70-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐Resting  Potential  (RP)/Resting  Threshold    
•   no  ions  move  through  voltage  gated  channels,  membrane  is  not  excited  
§   -­‐55-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐Threshold  intensity    
•   will  excited  membrane,  put  into  depolarization  
§   Depolarization  
•   Caused  by  the  Na+  flowing  into  the  cell  
§   +30-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐back  to  repolarization  
§   Repolarization  
•   Caused  by  K+  flowing  out  of  the  cell  
§   Under  -­‐70-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐hyperpolarization  (undershoot)  
•   Caused  by  K+  continuing  to  leave  the  cell  
 

Classes of Neurons
 
Structural  class:  
neuron  type  
according  to  the  
number  of  
processes  
extending  from  
the  cell  body  
Multipolar  
Many  processes  
extend  from  the  
cell  body
...
 

Bipolar  

Two  processes  
extend  from  the  
cell  body
...
 fused  
dendrite  
2
...
 
Major  neuron  
type  in  the  CNS
...
 In  
those  that  do,  the  
location  of  the  
trigger  zone  is  not  
universal
...
 Found  in  
some  special  
sensory  organs  
(olfactory  
mucosa,  eye,  
ear)
...
 
May  be  one  of  a  
chain  of  CNS  
neurons,  or  a  
single  neuron  
connecting  
sensory  and  
motor  neurons
...
 
Essentially  all  
bipolar  neurons  
are  sensory  
neurons  that  
are  located  in  
some  special  
sense  organs
...
388

Ch
...
387
v   Nervous  System  
Ø   Most  important  system  for  homeostasis  (maintain  internal  environment)  
Ø   Parts:  
§   Brain  
§   Spinal  chord  
§   Nerves  
Ø   Functioning:  
§   Sensory  receptor  
§   Sensory  input  (SN)  
•   Gathers  information—transmits  it  to  the  brain  and  spinal  chord  
§   Integration  
•   Brain  and  spinal  chord  
•   Makes  thoughts  and  decisions  
§   Motor  output  
•   Effects  of  the  thoughts  and  decisions  
§   Effector  

Pg
...
  Anular ligament
2
...
  Radial (L) collateral ligament
Hip Joint
1
...
  Iliofemoral ligament
3
...
  Pubofemoral ligament
5
...
L
...
9
L/H on muscle--- in folder—study with pg
...
287)
n   When a nerve impulse reaches a neuromuscular junction, Ach is released
...
  Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron
2
...
Ca2+ enters the axon terminal moving down its
electrochemical gradient
...
  Ca2+ entry causes Ach (a neurotransmitter) to be released by exocytosis
4
...
  Ach binding open ion channels in the receptors that allow simultaneous passage of Na+
into the muscle fiber and K+ out of the muscle fiber
...
(move Na+ in, K+ out, causes change in membrane potential called end plate
potential)
6
...

Muscle fiber contraction notes—study w/ page 286
...
 
iii
...
 
v
...
 

2
...
  Movement: rotational (uniaxial); supination-pronantion
2
...
  Movement: in two planes (biaxial); flexion-extension, adductionabduction, circumduction (no rotation)
2
...
  Movement: same as condyloid but freer
2
...
  Movement: Wide range of movements (triaxial); flexion-extension,
adduction-reduction, rotation
2
...
  Movement: gliding
2
...


Pg
...
  Medial meniscus
2
...
  Fibular (lateral) ligament
4
...
  Anterior cruciate ligament
6
...
  Patellar ligament
Pg
...
  Coracoacromial ligament
2
...
  Transverse humeral ligament
4
...
  Acromion
6
...
  Glenoid cavity

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels (pg
...
8
Body Joints, Joints vs
...
  Fibrous joints
o   Lack a joint cavity, bones are close together, joined by fibrous connective tissue
or ligament
o   Movement: synarthroses (practically immovable)
i
...
  Root of teeth
ii
...
  Margins of bones interlock or overlap, held by fibrous connective
tissue
2
...
  Syndesmosis
1
...
  Location: inferior tibiofibular joint
2
...
  Lack a joint cavity; bones held by cartilage
b
...
  Synchondrosis
1
...
  Location: between epiphyses and diaphysis of long bones
(epysereal plate)
ii
...
  Bones joined by disk of fibrocartilage
2
...
  Synovial joints
a
...
  Movement: diarthroses (freely moveable)
c
...
  Hinge (ginglymus)
1
...
  most abundant
c
...

4
...
  giant cells w/ 50 or more nuclei
b
...
  functions in the destruction of bone matrix, which is impt
...


Microscopic Anatomy of the Bone:
-   Compact Bone: the structural unit of compact bone is called the osteon or the Haversian
system: many of these units are cemented together in order to form substances of
compact bone
...
  Lamellae: the lamellae of each osteon are cylindrical and are aligned
parallel to the long axis of the central canal—a ring of hard, calcified
matrix
...
  Lacunae: these are small spaces between the lamellae, which contain
osteocytes
...
  Canaliculi: these are spaces that connect lacunae with one another and,
eventually, with the central canal
...
  Central (Haversian) canals: run longitudinally through the bone, that
contains one or more blood vessels that supply the osteon
...
  Perforating (Volkman’s) canals: run at right angles to the long axis of the
bone
...

-   Spongy Bone: in contrast to compact bone, spongy bone does not contain osteon
...
The spaces between the
trabeculae are filled with red marrow, which produces blood cells
...

-   Sex Hormones (several estrogens and testosterones): increase bone-building activity
of osteoblasts
...

-   Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (Blood CA up): increases the number and activity of
osteoclasts, pro-motes recovery of Ca2+ from urine, and promotes formation of calcitriol
...


Ch
...
6
...
175)
The bones and cartilage of the human skeleton
1
...
  nose-- cartilages in nose-- hyaline
3
...
  ribs—coastal cartilage-- hyaline
5
...
  epiglottis—elastic
7
...
  larynx—axial and hyaline
9
...
 meniscus (pad-like cartilage in knee joint)—fibrocartilage
11
...

-   Epiphysis: (proximal and distal) expanded portion at each end of the bone, composed of
a thin layer of compact bone, filled with spngy bone
...

-   Compact bone: the wall of the diaphysis is composed mainly of tightly packed tissue
called compact bone
...

-   Medullary cavity: a hollow central cavity in the shaft with with adipose tissue (no blood
cells in adult), is called yellow marrow
...

-   Endosteum: a thin, delicate layer of cells, lining the shaft
-   Articular cartilage: is the covering of epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum
Bone Cells L/H
1
...
  unspecialized cells derived from mesenchyme
present in the periosteum and endosteum
b
...
  osteoblasts (immature)
a
...
  no mitotic activity
c
...
  osteocytes (mature)
a
...
  mecrocrine glands= a fluid product that is released through the cell membrane
a
...
  apocrine glands=cellular product and portions of the free ends of glandular cells that
are pinched off during secretion
3
...
  ex: sebaceous glands of the skin
Cutaneous/ Skin Glands—
Eccrine Sweat Glands
-   abundant sweat glands, with odorless secretion
...

Respond primarily to elevated body temperature
...

-   Produces protein and lipid >>> (by bacterial action) becomes odoriferous
o   Function: wet skin during pain, fear, emotional upset, and sexual arousal
o   Location: near hair follicles in armpit, groin, and near nipples
Sebaceous glands
-   group of specialized epithelial cells
o   function:
§   keep hair soft, pliable, and waterproof
§   produces sebum (dead cells and fatty substances) that lubricates the skin
and hair
•   seborrhea= excessive sebum production
o   location= near or connected to hair follicles, everywhere but on palms and soles
Ceruminous glands
-   modified apocrine glands
...
Secrete milk >> located in the breast

iii
...
 
v
...
 

Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum

4
...
5
Gig
...
1 (pg
...
153)
--from most outer to inner-1
...
  Lucidum
3
...
  Stratum spinosum
5
...
  Simple branched
alveolar (sebaceous
–oil—glands)

2
...
  Mecrocrine glands secrete their products by exocytosis
2
...

Classes of Connective Tissues (pg
...
  Connective tissue proper
a
...
  Areolar
ii
...
  reticular
b
...
  Regular
ii
...
  elastic
2
...
  Hyaline cartilage
b
...
  fibrocartilage
3
...
  Compact bone
b
...
  Blood
Classes of Membranes (pg
...
  Cutaneous
a
...
  Mucous
a
...
  Mucosa of nasal cavity
ii
...
  Esophagus lining
iv
...
  Serous
a
...
  Parietal pericardium
ii
...
  pseudostratified columnar epithelium
a
...

b
...
Mucus propulsion by ciliary
action
...
  location: non-ciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large
glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract
...
  stratified squamous epithelium
a
...

b
...

c
...

6
...
  description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells
cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on
degree of organ stretch
...
  function: stretched readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ
...
  location: lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra
...
124, 126)
1
...
They
produce hormones which secrete by exocytosis directly into the extracellular space
2
...
(unicellular and multicellular glands)
...
  Simple tubular
(intestinal glands)
2
...
  Simple alveolar (no
important example
in humans)

Compound duct structure
(duct branches)
1
...
  Compound alveolar
(mammary glands)

Parts of nucleus
Nucleus

Structure
Largest organelle, surrounded
by the nuclear envelope;
contains fluid nucleoplasm,
nucleoli, and chromatin
...
Outer
membrane continuous with
the endoplasmic reticulum
...

Granular, threadlike material
composed of DNA and
histone proteins

Chromatin

function
DNA replication
...

Site of ribosome subunit
manufacture
...

DNA constitutes the genes

Ch
...
  simple squamous epithelium
a
...

b
...

c
...

2
...
  description: single layer of cube-like cells with large, spherical central nuclei
...
  function: secretion and absorption
c
...

3
...
  description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear
cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
...
  function: absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances
...

c
...


Microtubules (in
cytoskeleton)

Cylindrical structures made
of tubulin proteins

Microfilaments (in
cytoskeleton)

Fine filaments composed of
the protein actin

Intermediate filaments (in
cytoskeleton)

Protein fibers; composition
varies

centrioles

Paired cylindrical bodies,
each composed of nine
triplets of microtubules

inclusions

Varied; includes stored
nutrients such as lipid
droplets and glycogen
granules, protein crystals,
pigment granules

Cellular extensions
Cilia

Structure
Short cell-surface projections;
each cilium composed of nine
pairs of microtubules
surrounding a central pair
Like cilium, but longer; only
example in humans is the
sperm tail
Tubular extensions of the
plasma membrane; contain a
bundle of actin filaments

Flagellum
microvili

Support the cell and give it
shape
...
Form centrioles
and cilia and flagella, if
present
...

The stable cytoskeletal
elements; resist mechanical
forces acting on the cell
As part of the centrosome,
organize a microtubule
network during mitosis (cell
division) to form the spindle
and asters
...

Storage for nutrients, wastes,
and cell products

Functions
Coordinated movement
creates unidirectional current
that propels substances across
cell surfaces
Propels the cell
Increase surface area for
absorption

Cytoplasm (cellular region
between the nuclear and the
plasma membrane
...
Free of attached
to rough endoplasmic
reticulum
...
Externally
studded with ribosomes
...

Proteins are bound in vesicles
for transport to the Golgi
apparatus and other sites
...

Sites of lipid and steroid
(cholesterol) synthesis, lipid
metabolism, and drug
detoxification
Packages, modifies, and
segregates proteins for
secretion from the cell,
inclusion in lysosomes, and
incorporation into the plasma
membrane (protein post
office)
...

The most important enzyme,
catalase, breaks down
hydrogen peroxide
...

§   Endocytosis
•   Phagocytosis (movement of solids)
o   Energy source: ATP
o   Description: cell eating: a large external particle (proteins,
bacteria, dead cell debris) is surrounded by a “seizing foot”
and becomes enclosed in a plasma membrane sac
o   Examples: in the human body, occurs primarily in
protective phagocytes (some white blood cells,
macrophages)
•   Pinocytosis
o   Energy source: ATP
o   Description: cell drinking: plasma membrane sinks beneath
an external fluid droplet containing small solutes;
membrane edges fuse, forming a fluid-filled vesicle
o   Examples: occurs in most cells; important for taking in
solutes by absorptive cells of the kidney and intestine
•   Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o   Energy source: ATP
o   Description: selective endocytosis process; external
substance binds to membrane receptors, and coated pits are
formed
o   examples: means of intake of some hormones,
cholesterol, iron, and other molecules
Table 3
...
94, 95, and 96)
Plasma membrane

Structure
Membrane made of a double
layer of lipids (phospholipids,
cholesterol, and so on) within
which proteins are embedded
...

Most externally facing
proteins and some lipids have
attached sugar groups
...
Maintains a resting
potential that is essential for
functioning of excitable cells
...


L/H on Transport Processes:
-   Passive Processes (ATP NOT used)
o   Simple diffusion
§   Energy source: kinetic energy
§   Description: net movement of particles (ions, molecules, etc
...

§   Examples: movement of fats, oxygen, carbon dioxide through the lipid
portion of the membrane, and ions through protein channels under
certain conditions
...

•   Dialysis
o   Facilitated diffusionz
§   Energy source: kinetic energy
§   Description: same as simple diffusion, but the diffusing substance is
attached to a lipid-soluble membrane carrier protein
§   Examples: movement of glucose into cells
o   Filtration
§   Energy source: hydrostatic pressure
§   Description: movement of water and solutes through a semipermeable
membrane from a region of higher hydrostatic pressure that is, along, a
pressure gradient
...

-   Active Processes (ATP used)
o   Active transport (solute pumping)
§   Energy source: ATP (cellular energy)
§   Description: movement of a substance through a membrane against a
concentration (or electrochemical) gradient; requires a membrane carrier
protein
§   Examples: movement of amino acids and most ions across the
membrane
o   Bulk Transport
§   Exocytosis
•   Energy source: ATP
•   Description: secretion or ejection of substances from a cell; the
substance is enclosed in a membranous vesicle, which fuses with

Cell Cycle (pg
...
DNAcontaining material is in the form of chromatin, the nuclear envelope and one or
more nucleoli are intact and visible
...

§   6-8 hours
o   G2: materials needed for cell division are synthesized and growth continues
...

o   Mitosis (PMAT)
§   Prophase
•   Chromatin condense forming chromosomes, which each contain
two sister chromatids, held together at the centromere
...


iii
...
  Purine (a five membered ring fused to a six membered ring)
i
...
  Guanine (G)
2
...
  Ribose is the pentose in RNA
b
...
  Phosphate group:
a
...

PH balance
-   (-7
...
45 +, ph rises)
-   ph scale measures acid (H)/base (OH) concentration
-   ranges from 0 to 14
-   at 7 H and OH concentration is equal (distilled water)
-   < 7 acidic (HCl)
-   >7 basic (NaOH)
-   human blood pH= 7
...
45
-   a change in one unit of pH is a ten-fold change in the number of H atoms
Molecule: when two or more of the same or different atoms chemically combine together
-   same element (H atom plus H atom = H2)
-   different elements (4H plus C à CH4 (methane))
Compound: is a substance that can be broken down into two or more different elements by
chemical means
Ex: H2O, CH4, sugar, and most drugs
Chemical Compounds in the Human Body (all chemicals found in the body fall into one of the
two major classes of molecules
1
...
  they are a few simple molecules, except those that lack carbon atoms
b
...
  ex: O2, CO2, H2O, and many salts, acids, and bases
2
...
  they contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms
b
...
  in the body, ex: carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and adenosinetriphophate
(ATP)
-carbon chains are the backbone for many substances that are living cells
-C is a unique element in metabolism because it has 4 electrons in the outer shell à it can
combine with a variety of atoms
-mostly or entirely covalent bonds
Ch
...
I
...
  A base (nitrogen base): there are two types of nb
a
...
  Cytosine ©
ii
...
Straight or
folded

Carbohydrates: organic molecules which are made of sugars and their polymers, ex: sugars,
starch, glycogen, and cellulose
-   only 1-3 % of the body weight
-   contain C, H, and O with slight variations
-   ratio of H and O à 2 H: O à 2:1 (same as water)
-   Glucose (C6H12O6) Fructose (C6H12O6) Sucrose (C12H22O11)
-   Monosaccharides: monomers or building block molecules are simple sugars
-   Are classified based upon the number of simple sugars (mono, di, poly)
-   1
...
Glucose is the most common
...
Disaccharides: (double sugars)
o   two monosaccharides which combine by dehydration synthesis (glucose +
fructose à sucrose + water)
o   ex: sucrose (glucose and fructose) cane sugar (table sugar)
o   ex: (glucose and galactose) found in milk
o   ex: (glucose and glucose) malt sugar (in brewing beer)
o   these molecules are too big to pass through the cell membrane à broken into
mono-- à by hydrolysis ( + H2O)
-   3
...
Energy storage purpose
•   starch (in plants)
•   glycogen (in animals)—stored in liver and skeletal muscles
(like di--, poly--, can be broken down into mono—through hydrolysis
(+H2O) when they are needed as in a low glucose level
§   2
...
48)
a
...
  Glycine (simplest amino acid-- amine group + acid group + H)
c
...
  Lysine (a basic amino acid—has an amine group (-NH2) in the R group-- amine group +
acid group + (CH2)3CH2(NH2))
e
...
52)
1
...
  The E-S complex undergoes internal rearrangements that form the product (energy is
absorbed, bond is formed, water is released)
3
...
54)
-   The unit of DNA is the nucleotide, which is composed of a deoxyribose sugar molecule
linked to a phosphate group, with a base attached to the sugar
...

o   Ex: Adenine nucleotide (phosphate + sugar: deoxyribose + base: adenine) ---- H
bond--- Thymine nucleotide (Thymine (T) + sugar + phosphate)
-   DNA is a coiled double polymer of nucleotides (a double helix)
...
The rungs are
formed by the binding together of complementary bases (A-T and G-C) by hydrogen
bonds
...
3 Comparison of DNA and RNA (pg
...
24)
1
...
  Energy: the capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion
...
26)
-   Major (96
...
9 %)
o   Calcium
o   Phosphorus
o   Potassium
o   Sulfur
o   Sodium
o   Chlorine
o   Magnesium
o   Iodine
o   Iron
-   Trace (Less than 0
...

pH Scale (pg
...
5 = oven cleaner, lye
10
...
5 = household ammonia
9
...
4 = blood
6
...
6 = milk
5 = black coffee
2
...
5 = wine
2 = lemon juice; gastric juice
0 = 1 M hydrochloric acid
Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis (pg
...
  Dehydration synthesis: monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and
removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation
2
...

3
...
1
99
Table 1
...
12
-   Orientation and Directional Terms
Term
Superior (cranial) (not used
for limbs)
Inferior (caudal) (not used for
limbs)
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal (posterior)
Medial
Lateral
Intermediate
Proximal (only used for
limbs)
Distal (only used for limbs)

Superficial (external)
Deep (internal)

Definition
Toward the head end or upper
part of a structure or the
body; above
Away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below
Toward or at the front of the
body; in front of
Toward or at the back of the
body; behind
Toward or at the midline of
the body; on the inner side of
Away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of
Between a more medial and a
a more lateral structure

The navel is inferior to the
chin
The breastbone is anterior to
the spine
The heart is posterior to the
breastbone
The heart it medial to the arm
The arms are lateral to the
chest
The collarbone is
intermediate between the
breastbone and shoulder
The elbow is proximal to the
wrist

Closer to the origin of the
body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
Farther from the origin of a
The knee is distal to the thigh
body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
Toward or at the body surface The skin is superficial to the
skeletal muscles
Away from the body surface; The lungs are deep to the skin
more internal

Pg
...
  Frontal plane (anterior/posterior)
2
...
  Transverse plane (upper/lower)
4
...
angles)
Ch

---