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Organism - visible to the naked eye
Microorganism - microscope needed to see
Mold - member of the fungus kingdom
Rhizopus - bread mold
All fungi are decomposers
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

kilo
base
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico

10^3
10^-2 ---
...
001
10^-6---
...
000000001
10-12 ---
...
All living things require energy

Universal energy molecule: ATP
The process of cellular respiration produces ATP
Glucose + Oxygen ➡ water + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➡ 6H2O + 6CO2
2
...
All living things need to reproduce
Asexual reproduction = "Parent" divides to produce 2 (identical)
organisms
Sexual reproduction = Joining of DNA from 2 individuals
Offspring is a unique combo of characteristics from both parents
4
...
All living things grow and develop
6
...
If it's dark, u pupils dialate
7
...
Homeostasis = Staying the same
9
...
Photosynthesis
Ex
...
Cellular respiration

Chemical Symbols
C- Carbon
H- Hydrogen
O- Oxygen
N- Nitrogen
P- Phosphorus
S- Sulfur
Na- Sodium
Cl- Chloride
Fe- Iron
Zn- Zinc
Mg- Magneisum
i-Iodine
Ca- calcium
K- Potassium
Li- Lithium
B- Boron
F- Flourine
Cu- Copper
Br- Bromine
Ag- Silver
Au- Gold
Cs- Caesium
Ba- Barium
Hg- Mercury
Pb- Lead
Ra- Radium

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons
(also different atomic mass because atomic mass is # of protons + # of
neutrons)

Chemical change
A chemical change occurs when the valence electrons of two or more atoms
rearrange themselves by giving, taking and sharing electrons
Valence electrons• The electrons in an atoms outermost energy level
...


Physical Changes are changes that affect one or more physical properties of a
substance•

They have the same physical properties as they did before the physical
change
...
2nd = 2, etc, but 8th
has zero, there is no chemical bonding occurring because 7th column is full and
there is no need to share, give or take
Chemical bonding occurs when the valence electrons of 2 or more atoms
rearrange themselves by giving, taking or sharing electrons and produces a
chemical change in the starting atoms
Ionic bonding occurs from the giving and taking of valence electrons between
two or more atoms - one atom takes one gives
Covalent bonding occurs when 2 or more atoms share valence e- (e=electrons)
NaCl sodium chloride - ionic compound
Ions are formed in the making of an ionic bond
An ion is an atom with a charge
(+) charged atom = cation
(-) charged atom = anion

Sodium gives away one valence e- because it's easier than taking 7 from
chlorine, so they make sodium chloride!!

Lewis dot structure
1
...
The valence e- are represented by symbols: •, o, x
3
...
F
...
Empirical formula
Gives the total number of each type of atom in the molecule
Ex
...
Molecular formula
Gives more info about the arrangement of atoms in the molecule
Ex
...


Polar molecule: a molecule that has regions of partial charge because unequal
sharing of electrons
Ex
...
Oil
Polar and non polar don't mix: this is why water and oil don't mix!
Hydrogen Bond: something with negative and positive stick to each other

Adhesion-An attraction of molecules of the same substance
Cohesion- An attraction of molecules of different substances

Properties of H2O
1
...
High heat of vaporization -- evaporation
• Amount of energy needed to change liquid water into water vapor
3
...
Water is slow to change temperature
• Keeps organisms within a narrow temperature range
5
...

6
...


Mixture- Two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed
together but not chemically,
Ex
...

Ex
...

Ex
...

Ex
...
Such mixtures of water
and non-dissolved material are known as suspension

Acids - molecules that when dissolved in water produce hydrogen ion, H+
Ex
...
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
A pH scale is used to measure the strength of an acid or a base

Neutralization Reaction
Acid+base -- water + a salt = Neutral
HCl + NaOH -- H2O + NaCl = Neutral
0-7 - Acids
7-14 - Bases

Urine = 6-8
Blood- 7
...
8
pH goes by x10 when going up by 1
Ex
...
adding a “oic acid”
(OH-C=O)

Types of carbonyl
Aldehyde- a hydrocarbon with an internal (in the middle) carbonyl
Ketone- a hydrocarbon with a carbonyl at the end of a chain
BiomoleculesAll biomolecules are very large molecules called polymer
Polymers are large molecules made of repeating subunits called monomers
When we eat food we are eating POLYMERS and then our digestive system
breaks them down into MONOMERS (which can fit around our body in cells)and
our cells put them together to make our own proteins
Dehydration Synthesis- Bond two monomers, losing a water molecule
Hydrolysis- Breaking a polymer into monomers, using a water molecule
...
There are four main
groups of organic molecules that combine to build cells and their parts:
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
...
Carbohydrates
• sugars & starches
2
...
Proteins
4
...
Monosaccharide- Monomer, simple sugar
Glucose, (basic shape of glucose is a HEXAGON)
Galactose
C6 H12 O6
(ISOMERS)
Fructose (fruit sugar),

2
...
Polysaccharide- polymer (starches)
• Energy storage
Glycogen- animal starch in the liver
Plant starch- Usually stored in the roots
•

Structural support
Cellulose- found in cell wall of plants
Chitin- found in the exoskeleton of some insects

Lipids- Fats and Oils are nonpolar
• Made up of C, H, O
• Ratio of H:O > 2:1
• Much more H than O--( many lipids have very little O)
Fats•
•

Solid at room temperature
Come from an animal source

C12 H22

Scientific names• Monoglyceride- glycerol + a fatty acid
• Diglyceride- glycerol + 2 fatty acids
• Triglycerides- glycerol + 3 fatty acids
Oils•
•

Liquid at room temperature
Come from plant source
Scientific names• Monoglyceride- glycerol + a fatty acid (fatty acid= really long
hydrocarbon)
• Triglyceride- glycerol + 2 fatty acids
• Triglycerides- glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Ester Bond is the bond of Glycerol and Fatty Acids

Waxes
Phospholipids
Steroids
Saturated fatty acids= those that have C-C single bond (and therefore have
maximum number of hydrogens)
Unsaturated fatty acids= those that have C=C (therefore doesn’t have
maximum number of hydrogens)

Polly unsaturated fatty acids= those that have multiple C=C
Saturated- have good form so can be packed tight together and stay straight
up (therefore solid at room temperature)
Hydrogenated- chemical process that adds H's to the C=C of an unsaturated
fatty acid
...

Some steroids are hormones,
Example: Testosterone, Estrogen
Some steroids are structural molecules
Example: Cholesterol
Steroids can be identified by the presence of 4 rings compacted together

Phospholipid

The Phosphate—The head
Head- Polar (hydrophilic)
Tails- nonpolar (hydrophobic)
Interstitial Fluid- Fluid that surrounds cells,
Aqueous (watery)
Outside= Interstitial fluid

Micelle- Single layer of phospholipids, the tails are faced inward
...
Keratin and collagen
Hormones- Chemical messengers, tell other cells what do and when
Help coordinate cellular activity
Ex
...
Antibodies, blood-clotting proteins
Transportation- transport molecules across cell membranes or through the
blood
...
Hemoglobin
Storage- as a supply of amino acids for future use
Ex
...
Insulin receptor
Contractile Proteins- allow some organisms to move
Ex
...
Trypsin and Pepsin

Four Levels of Protein structure

Primary- the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (in a long straight
line with the amino group start and the carboxyl end)
Secondary- Can form Beta pleated sheet or alpha helix (swirl, curly), the part
amino group ( N - H) is connected by hydrogen bonds with the part of the
carboxyl group (C = O)in row polypeptide, No R groups,
Tertiary Structure-Interactions of R groups
• Hydrophobic Interactions- (One glob Of R group)
• Hydrogen Bonds- (between different type of R groups)
• Ionic bond
• Disulfide bridge- Different protein chains or loops within a single chain
are held together by the strong covalent disulfide bonds

Protein is a polypeptide that has been properly folded into a 3d shape and is
functional
Quaternary Structure- Proteins made up the same, but more than one
polypeptide twisted together
...


Antibodies bind to antigens


Protein 3D shape
When a protein is heated, its 3d shape will unfold
...
Phosphate-Deoxyribose-Thymine-Adenine-Deoxyribose-Phosphate)
•

Cell Bio
Development of the Microscope
Robert Hooke – 1660’s –
Named a cell by looking at cork
Anton Von Leevwenhoek (10 years later 1670’s)
• Developed the first microscope
• Designed a microscope with 300x magnification
Schleiden- Botanist (Studies plants) = all plant are made of cells
(1830’s-1840’s)
Schwann – Zoologist (Studies animals) = all animals are made of cells
(1830’s-1840’s)
Examine plants + animals + their parts microscopically
Virchow – states that cells are produced from other cells (1850’s)
Cell Theory
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of living things
• Cells can only come from preexisting cells

Prions- Infectious proteins that cause diseases, mad cow disease and Scrapie
(sheep)
Cells are either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic:

Eukaryotic:

Don’t have a nucleus

Have a nucleus

Smaller, simpler

Large range, more complex

Do not have membranes bound
organelles (Compartments)

Have membrane bound organelles

Unicellular

Unicellular or multicellular

Some prokaryotes are bacteria
All bacteria are unicellular + prokaryotes
5 (6) kingdoms:
Bacteria
Fungus
Protists
Plants
Animals
Bold: Eukaroyates
Plain: Prokaroyates

To see cells under a microscope- the length are micrometers (um)

Animal Cell structures:

Nucleus• Usually, but not always the largest structure in the cell
...

• The cells DNA in the form of chromosomes is located here
Nuclear membrane (envelope)-2 layers of membrane that have pores to allow
things to leave the nucleus
Nucleolus-Shadowy area of the nucleus where ribosomes are made
Centrioles- Barreled shaped pair of structures located on one side of the
nucleus at right angles to each other- function in cell division
Mitochondria• “Power house of cell”
• Site of cellular respiration that produce ATP for the cell to use
...
Cells that require lots of energy suck as muscle cells have
many mitochondria
Lysosome- “Garbage truck of the cell” Digest old, worn cell parts molecules,
low PH Associated with Tay Sach’s Disease
Vacuole – Can vary in size and shape Function in storage
Cytoplasm- Watery fluid within the cell membrane (inside of it! in the cell)
Chromatin- Chromosomes (DNA) wound onto protein molecules

Endoplasmic Reticulum- System of channels, some have ribosomes on their
surfaces and some do not
•

RER- ribosomes on their surface, functions in the processing and sorting of
proteins

•

SER- no ribosomes on their surface, functions in lipid formation and
synthesis of membrane

Golgi (complex/apparatus)• Modifying, sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion
• It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the
creation of lysosomes
...
Micro-machine for making
proteins
Cell membrane• Selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the
movement of substances in and out of cells
...

Cytoskeleton:
• Supports cell shape
• Anchors organelles to specific locations
• Allows organelles, molecules + cells to move
• Dynamic (changes)
3 types of molecules that make up cytoskeleton:
• Microtubules- tubulin proteins, thick hollow fibers, important in cell division
• Intermediate filaments –Keratin/Collagen, Anchors organelles + parts of
the cell
• Microfilaments- actin, thin hollow fibers, that attach to cell membrane
Plant Cell Structures:
Cell Wall- Most outer layer of plant cell, It surrounds the cell membrane and
provides these cells with structural support and protection
...
Central vacuoles fooled with H20 help support the plant by making
the plant cells more rigid and sturdy
Chloroplasts- Chloroplast have a double membrane, its inner membrane is
organized into stacks where light energy is trapped and through the process of
photosynthesis, chemical energy (glucose) is produced from light energy
...

Most science classes is the Light microscope
Carry the microscope by the arm and the base
Objectives are attached to the nosepiece
Always start with the low objective
Substance

Letter

Lighter Fluid

Water

Paper Test

Fat Present

Mayo

Y

Not Soluble

Soluble

Shiny

Yes

Alcohol

Z

Soluble

Soluble

Not Shiny

No

Butter
(Pure Fat)

X

Soluble

Not soluble

Shiny

Yes

Cell Membrane
Selectively Permeable some substances can pass through the cell membrane
and some cannot
...
) that work
together
...

More Cholesterol less fluid

Less Cholesterol more fluid

Components of the Cell Membrane
- Phospholipids
- Cholesterol
- Protein
1
...
Peripheral – One side of the cell membrane or the other
-

Glycolipids (outside of the cell membrane)- strings of lipids that’s
modified with sugar
(FUNCTION IN CELL INDENTIFICATION)
- Glycoprotein (outside of the cell membrane)- – strings of proteins
modified with sugar
- Proteglycan- a carbohydrate that has a small protein attached to it

Functions of Cell Membrane Proteins
1
...
Transport across the cell membrane
- Channels + pumps
- Protein (integral and Peripheral)
3
...
Signal Transduction
- Receives molecular signals from the outside of the cell and delivers of
the message to the proper part of the cell
5
...


-

(The cytoskeleton and the extracellular attach to the cell membrane)

How do molecules pass through the cell membrane and get into or out of the
cell?
- Size of the molecule-Large? Small?
- Charge of the molecule- Polar? Nonpolar?
Small, nonpolar molecules can easily cross the cell membrane
Examples: Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Large, polar molecules cannot easily pass through the cell membrane
Examples: Glucose, water

The cell needs:
Amino acids
Glycerol
Fatty acids
Monosaccharaides (glucose)
Water
Oxygen
Ions (Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Chlorine, Sodium)

The cell exports:
Carbon dioxide
Heat energy
Waste Product
Water

Concentration – amount of solute per unit of volume
A
...
1 starbucks venti (20 oz) – 5 sugars = 5 sugar/ 20 oz
Cup A has a lower concentration of sugar than cup B
Units of concentration: grams to ml
2mg/ml
10g/liter
5g/100ml = 5% (5/100)

Concentration of solute
Hypertonic- more than
Hypotonic- less than
Isotonic- same as

In cell:
Hypertonic: The solution has a higher concentrate of solute than the cell
...
Net movement
of water into the cell (to the solute) —> the cell expands
Isotonic: The concentration is the same inside and outside the cell
...
The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed
as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will continue until this gradient has
been eliminated
...
the concentration of water is going from
High to low because The net movement of the water is to where the solutes
are so
Osmotic Pressure- The pressure that pushes the water from one side of the
‘cell’ to the other

Passive transport- the movement of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated (helps it)- Many large and polar molecules items take more
effort to pass through the cell membrane
...
This process in which molecules cannot directly diffuse
across the membrane is called facilitated diffusion

Aquaporins are channels that water molecules go through, in and out of the
cell, while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes
...
Neuron transmitters comes from
one specific axon and is going to one specific dendrite,

Bulk Transport
Exocytosis- Going out of the cell
- The membrane of the vacuole surrounding the material fuses with the cell
membrane forcing the contents outside the cell
Endocytosis- Going into the cell
1
...
a cell deforms its membrane to form a little
cone around the piece of material that is to be absorbed, and then it closes
the sides of the cone, hugging the particle in the cell membrane to create
what is known as a phagosome or food vacuole, like a little envelope of
material surrounded by the cell membrane
...
Pinocytosis- The cell membrane invaginate, enclosing the extracellular fluid
...

3
...
Cellular respiration
- C6H1206+6O2 –——> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Anabolic pathway- build molecules
Ex
...

Potential energy becomes kinetic energy when the energy is used

G = energy (measure energy with G)
G = Gibb’s free energy
Gproducts – Greatants = ΔG
Exergonic reaction- releases energy - the products have less energy than the
reactants
represented with — (minus)

Ex
...
Photosynthesis
ATP is the universal energy molecule
Stands for: Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide
Consists of 3 phosphate groups, a ribose, and a adenine

The bond between the 3rd and 2nd phosphate has more energy-Represented
with squiggly line
The bond between the 2nd and 1st phosphate has less energy
The bond between the 1st phosphate and the Ribose is very little energyRepresented with a straight line

ADP = Adenine di-phosphate
ATP —> (ADP + Phosphate); energy is used for cellular work because work
requires energy
Dephosphorylation reaction,
3rd and 2nd phosphate looses it’s bond, releasing energy so it’s an exergonic
reaction
H2O is needed hence a hydrolysis reaction
(ADP + Phosphate) —> ATP; is Cellular Respiration,
Energy is needed (taken from food) hence an endergonic reaction
Phosphorylation reaction, the phosphate is added back to the ADP
Kinases are a family of enzymes that control phosphorylation of molecules,
that adds phosphate and energy
Hexokinase- Phosphorilaytes 6-Carbon Sugars (Hexoses)
PentaKinase- Phosphorilayte 5-Carbon Sugars (Pentoses)
In phosphorylation of a molecules, A phosphate and energy is taken from ATP
sometimes , to add a phosphate to the molecule
Glucose—> Glucose 6-phosphate

Enzymes
-Organic protein Catalysts
-Speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

Each enzyme is specific to one substrate
Sucrase is the enzyme that catalyzes, sucrose —> fructose + glucose
Only goes that one way
DNA polymerase-enzyme that is responsible for forming new copies of DNA, in
the form of nucleic acid molecules
Catalase-enzyme that is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and

oxygen
...

3
...


Substrate enters active site
Substrates are held in active site by weak interactions
Substrates are converted to products

Induced Fit Model- The grip of the enzymes tightens after the
substrate enter the active site
...
Only specific substrate (s) to the enzymes
Lock and Key model- Active site is rigid and is one shape
...

Enzymes
-Reaction rates can be measured by the disappearance of reactant or the
appearance of product
The activity of enzymes is affected by:
Temperature- Normal Temperature of enzymes is 37 C
As the temperature rises, the kinetic energy rises, substrates move quicker and
in chemical reactions the substrate bounces into the enzymes
...
and proteins 3-D structure can be altered by pH
...

Trypsin Works as pH of 2
Pepsin works as pH of 8
Concentration of Substrate

Over time the enzyme eventually will do the job until they run out of substrates
(reactants), and the reaction will slow down because it will be harder for the
substrate to come into the enzymes, because there is less substrate
...

presence of co-enzymes or co-factor
non-protein that supports the enzymes’ activity and helps the binding of the
substrate and the enzyme
Examples:
Mg2+
2n2+
Ca2+
Fe+

Presence of inhibitors (Competitive + noncompetitive)
A competitive inhibitors blocks the binding of substrate to the active site, and
sits on the active site,
Which competes with the substrate for binding to the enzyme’s active site
...

C6 H12 06 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H20
Exergonic
Catabolic pathway

Cofactor or Coenzyme in Cellular Respiration is NAD of FADH
The enzymes in cellular respiration that release energy from glucose pass the
energy to NAD of FADH because in CR the enzymes take the glucose apart
very slowly and energy is released
When energy is given to NAD and FADH it is given in the form of H+
NAD + H+ —> NADH (Oxidyzing)


NADH —> NAD+ H+ (Reduction)

FADH + H+ —> FADH2 (Oxidyzing)


FADH2 —> FADH+ H+ (Reduction)

Oxidized means losing e-, or the negative charge (which means also gaining
protons and more positive charge) so the NADH + FADH2 are oxidized because
they lose the e- , the e- that help the cytochromes push the H+ into the inner
membrane space
Reduction is the gain of e- or a decrease in oxidation (opposite of oxidation)

When the energy is given back to the enzymes it is used to to form the ATP
The overall goal of CR is breaking the the carbon-carbon bond
38 ATP molecules are produced from a molecule of Glucose, and there is a
net gain of 36 ATP molecules
Glycolysis- splits a 6 carbon molecule into two three carbon molecules
2 ATP molecules are given and 4 are produced = NET GAIN of 2
Give 2 NAD and produce 2 NADH
Going from 2 Pyruvic Acid (3) —-> 2 Acetyl CoA (2C)
2 NAD and produce 2 NADH
Give off 2CO2


Kreb’s Cycle- completely finishes removing the energy from the carbon-carbon
bonds of glucose
...

For each Acetyl CoA, per turn of Kreb’s cycle : (goes 2)
Give off 2CO2
Give off 1 ATP
Give off total of 4 { NADH + FADH2)

Electron Transport Chain- the energy from glucose that is now held by the
coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) is passed over to the molecules of the ETC

( electric transport chain) that used the energy to make ATP
Give 12 (NADH + FADH2) ! Get 12 (NAD + FAD)
Give 602 (Not from the glucose) ! Get 12H20
Electron Transport Chains consist of special proteins (called cytochromes) that
are part of the cristae- they sit in the inner mitochondria membrane
The space between the Cristae and the outer membrane is called the inner
membrane space
...

The energy passing form one complex to another is the energy stripped from
NADH and FADH2 to push the H+ up (also stripped from NADH and FADH2)
Oxygen is the final H+ acceptor, The process of producing ATP in the ETC is
called Chemiosmosis, where the H+ moves from the inner membrane space to
the matrix, from a high to low concentration, against the concentrate
gradientnalso called oxidative phosphorylation
The ATP channel transports the ATP molecules out of the Matrix

Anaerobic respiration or Fermentation
2 types
5
...

Lactic Acid Fermentation
-Mammalian Muscle Cells
- Some Bacteria

When Kreb’s Cycle’s cycle and ETC can’t get Oxygen they do Annaerobic
Repiration
In Anaerobic Respiration get a little more ATP (2 is the net gain , 4 is produced
because two is given in)

When Lactic Acid builds up the muscle it turns back to Pyretic Acid, going back
Aerobic Respiration
The Kreb's cycle forms a large amount of NADH and FADH2, and the electron
transport chain is necessary for these to be converted back to the, NAD, and
FADH that are necessary for another round in the Krebs cycle
...


Glycolysis
2
...
5 ATP
Per FADH2 given to the ETC- 2 ATPS

New
Per NADH given to the ETC - 2
...
5 ATPS
Deamination Reaction - Removes the amino group from amino acids, and

you’re left with a molecule made out of C,H,O (made out of the molecules of
Glucose) that jump onto the cellular respiration process, which is a source of
energy, this reaction
The amino group that breaks out of the amino acid (in the deamination
reaction) is NH3 (amonia) the live converts ammonia to urea (which we pea out)
When a Phosphate + ADP + energy —> ATP
In Kreb’s cycle and Glycolysis phosphorilyation of ADP + P + energy is called
substrate level phosphorylation
In ETC phosphorilyation of ADP + P + energy is called oxidative
phosphoriltation

The two daughter cells that are produced by the parent cell are identical
46 Chromosomes (in parent cell, and every other cell):

#1-23 from Mom (Egg)
#1-23 from Dad (Sperm)
A male baby is XY , A female baby is XX
So the sperm can carry an X or Y, The egg can only carry an X
The one cell that divides came directly from the Sperm and Egg
When the cell divides the 46 chromosomes are copied, in order for each
daughter (2 total) cell to have 46 chromosomes

What is necessary for a parent cell to split?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Number of chromosomes must be equal
Create 2 new nuclei
Copy each chromosome
Copy all the DNA –(Replication)
More cell membrane
Replicate Organelles
Make additional proteins
Membrane for the organelles
Organize the DNA (chromosomes)
-each cell gets 2 of each type of chromosome (23 types of
chromosomes one from sperm and one form egg, )

Human stem cell- Can become any cell in the body !!!! Specialized cells
(Ex
...
Nucleus of Resting Cell
2
...
The 2 centrioles on one side, one of them transfer to the other side and
extend fibers, which pull the centromere (holds the 2 chromosomes
together) apart from the 8 pairs of chromosomes (total 16)
4
...
Two identical daughter cells are produced with 8 chromosomes (one of
the 4 from each parent 4*2 = 8)

Human Cell Cycle
- From a parent cell to 2 daughter cells take 24 hours
Bacteria divide every 30 minutes
1
...
grows to the size
of the parent cell, then go on to S phase, and with replicated organelles
and DNA, cell division can occur again
...
S Phase (10-12 hours)
DNA is replicates- Replication
3
...
Cell Division (takes 1 hour 15 minutes)
- Mitosis Is division between the nucleus (takes 1 hour)
- Cytokinesis- Division of the cytoplasm (takes 10-15 minutes)
The 2 daughters cell stay in G0 until they are told to divide and then they start
the first process (S-phase) over again



The part of the cell cycle (G2, S, G1) is called interphase

The duplicated chromosomes hold together by centromere right before mitosis,
are both identical, and called sister chromatids (joined together)

Before mitosis- the chromosomes have already been divided

Interphase is followed by Mitosis = Interphase ! Mitosis

Phases of Mitosis:
Prophase-the appearance of chromosomes
Metaphase- (before this process there are already duplicate chromosomes in
pairs held by centromere) Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
Anaphase- sister chromatids separate (from being held together by
centromere), migrate to opposite poles
Telophase- pinching in of membrane
Mitosis is followed by Cytokinesis = Mitosis! Cytokinesis

Control of Cell Cycle
- Checkpoints that ensure that all steps in the process of cell division
are completed before the next phase begins
3 main Checkpoints:
1
...
S !G2
3
...


Cancer cells develop when cells aren’t regulated and divide at their own rate
...
(In a diploid cell 23 pairs of chromosomes [23 types of
chromosomes], one from the mom one from the dad, but the one from the mom
and one from dad in each 23 pairs are not connected)
Eggs cells + sperm cells are haploid cells, each of which are one of a
chromosome pair that exists in diploid cells
...

2n- diploid (46)
n-haploid (23)
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes, which are sex
cells which are sperm cells + egg cells
Gametogenesis is the process of producing sex cells, by the process of
Meiosis

Gametogenesis is either:
Oogenesis produces Oocytes (egg cell, haploid)
Spermatogenesis produces spermatocytes (Sperm cell, haploid)



Tetrads are only formed in Meiosis
I , of prophase
•A pair of Homologous
Chromosomes, are the tetrad with
2 different duplicated
chromosomes, one from the mom
one from the dad
...

Crossing over occurs when the tetrads are formed in prophase of Meiosis I
when the chromatin condenses and only occurs in meiosis

50% The Parental Traits
50% The Recombination
The more frequent recombination occurs between 2 linked genes (on the same
chromosome) the further apart they are located on the chromosome

Frequency of recombination = map units on the chromosome
(Ex
...


•

Recombination is a clue for gene mapping to see who diseases are
inherited
...
(2 n’s from the small 2n and one small
and one big n’s from the big 2n

!

•

Nondisjunction is:
Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I,
Nondisjunction causes abnormal amount of chromosomes in daughter cells
because if an egg or sperm cell has more chromosomes and joins with the
opposite gamete, and forms a zygote which then divides into 2 daughter
cells, eventually there will also be an abnormal amount of chromosomes in
daughter cell


A tetrad sticks together in the first meiotic division

Asexual reproduction, where a single organism divides to produce two identical
organisms (example: mitosis)
Sexual reproduction is where there are two organisms that join DNA to produce
one organism
Binary fission is a kind of asexual reproduction
...
The
two nearly sized daughter cells, have the same genetic (DNA) material
...
(Telophase of Plant cell) Two daughter cells result, each with its own
plasma membrane and cell wall
...
Griffith’s Experiment- 1928,

Hypothesis: Material in dead deadly bacterial cell (S bacteria) can genetically
transform harmless bacteria (R bacteria) into deadly bacteria


•

S bacteria, has a coat of molecules, and is deadly; the genetic information
(DNA) makes the outer coat and makes the bacteria deadly
...
But the scientists didn’t know that then
...
Avery, McCarty + Macleod,
What part of component of the S bacteria can transform the R bacteria
to the deadliness of the S bacteria?
Is it protein?
Is it DNA?
Is it RNA?
•

First Experiment: Control Group: Liquid and R bacteria, R bacteria stays R
bacteria, to make sure R bacteria

•

Second Experiment: S and R bacteria, R goes to deadliness of S (Meaning
the DNA transformed), Can tell that because though the DNA is transformed
the R bacteria “is” S bacteria

•

Third Experiment: Destroyed Proteins in S bacteria Extracts (with trypsin to
hydrolyze proteins, which kills the protein) in S bacteria R bacteria, the R
bacteria go to S bacteria deadliness, showing that Protein doesn’t consist
of the genetic material because even though the protein was destroyed, the
genetic material in the S bacteria still transformed to the R bacteria

•

Fourth Experiment: Destroyed RNA in S bacteria Extracts (with RNase, which
kills RNA) in S and R bacteria, R bacteria goes to deadliness of S bacteria,
showing that RNA doesn’t consist of the genetic material because even
though the RNA was destroyed, the genetic material in the S bacteria still
transferred to the R bacteria

•

Fifth Experiment: Destroyed DNA in S Bacteria Extracts (with DNase, which
kills DNA) in S and R bacteria, R bacteria stays R bacteria, that though The
DNA was changed the genetic material couldn’t transform to the R bacteria
showing that DNA is the genetic material

3
...
but no virus DNA) is injected by
a bacteriophage (a virus) which injects it’s DNA into the host cell and the
DNA takes over the host cell and that host cell becomes a bacteria cell with
virus DNA
•

A virus that infects bacteria is called a phage or a bacteriophage

•

The proteins were labeled with 35S (a radioactive form of sulfur) and the
DNA was labeled with 32P, a radioactive form of phosphorus
...


•

To label the DNA and protein they recognized the material inside each
element and put radioactivity that labeled the material inside the DNA or
protein so it could be visible
...
Radioactive sulfur-35 was used to label the protein sections of
the phage, because sulfur is contained in proteins but not DNA

•

Don’t use RNA because there is no RNA in phage or bacteria
...


•

This was done by a series of two experiments in which different sets of
non-radioactive bacteria were incubated with phages that had either their
protein or their DNA labeled They allowed the phages to infect the bacteria
for a short time, they agitated the incubations to dislodge any loose parts of
the phages
...
They found that the radioactive DNA was always found with
the bacteria cells and that the radioactive protein was always in the
bacteriophage
...
Thus all of the information needed to produce
new viruses was contained in the DNA and not the protein
...
The reason why they spin and use the blender is to separate the heavier
stuff (the bacteria) from the empty radioactivity phage, which is centrifugeto spin to separate things from mass, stuff lighter on the top and the
heavier stuff fall to the bottom

What does DNA structure look like?
How does it copy itself?
How does it pass information to new cells?
Chargaff- “Chargaff’s rules”
Chemically analyzed DNA from different cells of different living creatures
(Human, Mice, Bacteria etc
...
Maurice
Wilkins is her boss and breaks into her office and sees the picture
...

Maurice hears what Chargaff said about the concept of the percentage of
the nitrogenous bases and tells Watson and Crick

James Watson + Francis Crick + (Maurice Wilkins)
Wins the noble prizes, after hearing what Watson said about Franklin and
Chargaff and asks the lab to construct a double helix structure on what they
know and everything makes sense to Crick and Watson about genetics

•

The two strands were connected with hydrogen bonds and according to
Chargaff rules with the same percent of T and A, G and C so they took
apart the connection between the Nitrogenous and realized that the DNA is
replicated, when the hydrogen bonds are broken and the Nitrogenous bases
(attached to their phosphate and deoxyribose) are rearranged with
nucleotides hanging around the nucleus that bind with the right match (with
A goes to T and G goes to C) and they get a noble prize
...

The two new strands produced are identical from the first one, but one
strand in each DNA molecule is a new one
...


•

Helicase –Untwists the double helix, breaking the hydrogen bonds between
the 2 strands

•

After the hydrogen bonds are broken, you don’t want the nucleotides to
reconnect by the hydrogen bonds rebonding, so you have a protein (that is
not an enzyme) called single stranded binding protein that binds to the 2
single strand parental strands to prevent them from rehydrogenbonding with
each other,

Primase is an enzyme that creates a short RNA sequence, called a primer, on a
DNA template strand so that DNA polymerase can make a copy of that DNA
strand
...

• So the RNA primase enzyme lays down a short RNA primer completement
to the DNA strand being copied, then DNA polymerase extends the new
strand
...

• The RNA pirmase is then replaces by DNA sequences, by DNA polymerase
III
DNA polymerase I
• Forms covalent phosphodiester bond between nucleotides, the hydrogen
bond has already occurred when the DNA polymerase connects the 5C
sugar from one nucleotide to the phosphate to another, in the leading
strand
•

When the DNA replicates, one parental strand is upside down (upside down
to other parental strand that it broke off from) so it’s 3’-5’, the new DNA
strand go from 5’-3’, so the parental and new strand matches up because
they are antiparallel, which is the leading strand, but the other parental
strand is going from 5’-3’, so the new strand has to go from 3’-5’,

•

Never can go from 3’ to 5’ because the 5C sugar binds to the phosphate of
the next nucleotide not the phosphate of the previous nucleotide to the 5C
sugar of the next nucleotide

•

So what occurs is that strand doesn’t occur in a straight line, but forms in
Okazaki fragments, the lagging strand made up of many nucleotides
(already connected with phosphodiester bonds) where they go from 5’-3’,
and start at the beginning of the division of the parental strand and another
5’-3’ goes behind the first one and etc
...


•

Ozaki fragments, they are the 5!3 fragments, that are formed in the
lagging strand
DNA ligase, seals the gap between the Okazaki fragments,

•
•

A team of Enzymes that go behind the DNA polyramase that makes sure
there are no mistakes,

Transcription: DNA ! mRNA
Occurs in the Nucleus
DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
RNA: Ribose Nucleic Acid
DNA vs
...

• DNA is: A, T, G, C and mRNA is: A, G, C, U
• 5C sugar in DNA is deoxyribose and mRNA is ribose
•

rRNA- Proteins are assembled on ribosomes, small organelles composed of
two subunits
...


•

It is directed to the start site of transcription, by transcription Factors (which
also bind to the promoter) to a particular DNA sequence that appears at the
beginning of the gene for the polypeptide
...
It is a unidirectional sequence on one
strand of the DNA that tells the RNA polymerase both where to start and in
which direction (that is, on which strand) to continue synthesis

Signals in the DNA (genes) tell the RNA polymerase where to start and end
transcription
• Transcription Start Signal (Promoter)
• Transcription Stop Signal
The mRNA is made right next to that gene (DNA) and the DNA is only
transcribed in that part of the DNA, that gene of code for the polypepdtide
•

The RNA polymerase opens up the two strands of DNA

•

The ribonucleotides are the RNA nucleotide (With a phosphate, Ribose and
a Nitrogenous Base: A,U,G,C) that bind to that DNA Strand so the mRNA can
make phosophodiester bonds and then break off so the 2 DNA strands can
come together

•

One strand of the 2 DNA strand that the RNA is copied off, is the antisense
strand 3’-5’ (compared to the mRNA strand)

•

The sense strand is the complementary DNA strand is 5’-3’ (compared to
the mRNA strand), and is also know as the coding strand, The coding strand
is not used as a template, but is identical in sequence to the mRNA strand
produced except that all the U's are T's

5’-G-C-A-T-C-G-A-T-C-T-G-C-A-T-C-C-G-A-T-3’ (DNA, Anti-coding strand,
antisense)
3’C-G-U-A-G-C-U-A-G-A-C-G-U-A-G-G890-C-U-A-5’ (mRNA)
3’C-G-T-A-G-C-T-A-G-A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-T-A-5’ (DNA, Coding STRAND, sense
strand)

•

Will imitate leading strand instead of having to go in Okazaki fragments, to
go straight from 5’-3’,

•

The promoter tells whether the mRNA copies the top or bottom strand
...
And be anti-parallel to the other strand (So
5’-3’ and 3’-5’)
In this instance if you copy the top strand then you go right to left
...

The 5' cap protects the nascent mRNA from degradation and assists in
ribosome binding during translation
...

The poly (A) tail protects the mRNA from degradation, aids in the export of
the mature mRNA to the cytoplasm, and is involved in binding proteins
involved in initiating translation
...
The remaining pieces, known as exons are then spliced back
together to form the final mRNA
...


•

The tRNA and mRNA bind to the the ribosome
...


•

•

The AUG start codon is located on the mRNA strand (it signals
tationranslto start by recruiting the large ribosomal unit to the small one)
...
(From the previous tRNA
etc
...
A
gardener at his
monastery and
becomes very
interested in the pea
plant, and crosses
different plea plants
with different
characteristics to see
the outcome
• Pollen is the male
gamete (haploid) for
a flower
Mendel collected
pollen from plants
and put it on other

plants to breed different plant
Pollen sticks to the sticky part of a stigma, and the eggs (haploid) of the
flower fertilize to become a zygote and the end result is a seed

Phenotype- Physical characteristic of an organism
Genotype- The set of genes which produce your characteristic
Example
Blue- Phenotype
Blue/Brown- Genotype, (2 genes for every characteristics one from the mom
on from the dad
...

Allele- genetic possibility for a particular trait
Fur Color- Trait or characteristic color of an animals for its phenotype
An allele is a genetic possibility for a phenotype within a population
Pea plant height is caused by inheriting one of two possible alleles from each
parent
...
in humans there are multiple genes
that make up on trait
...

Polygenic Traits- Traits that are controlled by two or more genes
Di-Hybrid Cross
All of these characteristics of the pea that Mendel worked with (Shape, height
etc
...
So he took a pea with two
characteristics and another pea with opposite characteristics (Tall, roundShort, wrinkled)
Parental Generation: Yellow Round (YYRR) X Green Wrinkled (yyrr)
YR

YR

yr

YyRr

YyRr

yr

YyRr

YyRr

F1 100% Yellow Round (YyRr)

YyRr X YyRr (F1 x F1) = F2

F2:

9: Round Yellow
1: Both dominant homozygous traits (Shape and Color)
2: Heterozygous (dominant) shape and dominant homozygous color
2: Dominant homozygous shape and heterozygous (dominant) color 

4: Both heterozygous (dominant) trait (Shape and Color)
3: Round green
1: Dominant homozygous shape and recessive homozygous color

2: Heterozygous shape and Homozygous recessive color
3: Wrinkled Yellow
1: Recessive homozygous shape and dominant recessive color

2: Recessive Homozygous shape and heterozygous (dominant) color
1: Wrinkled Green
Both recessive homozygous traits (Shape and Color)

Monohybrid cross – Dd X Dd
(F2)- 3:1- Dominant: Recessive
Dihybrid AaBb X AaBb
(F2) 9: double dominant
3: dominant and recessive
3: recessive and dominant
1: double recessive

If the genes were inherited as a unit
Parental Generation: RRTT x rrtt

rt

rt

RT

RTrt

RTrt

RT

RTrt

RTrt

F1: RTrt
RTrt X RTrt
RT

rt

RT

RRTT

RrTt

rt

RrTt

rrtt

F2 = RRTT- Round Tall (Dominant)
RrTt- Tall Round (Heterozygous)
RrTt-Tall Round (Heterozygous)
rrtt- Short Wrinkled (recessive)
So the ratio is 3: Tall Round (1 Dominant, 2 Heterozygous)
1: Short Wrinkled (2 Recessive)

•

This is the wrong way, to show that chromosomes are assorted
independently of each other, where the right way is where there are all
combinations Tall wrinkled, Short Round, Tall Round, Short Wrinkled )

•

One trait doesn’t affect another trait, so this wrong example shows how the
shape and height affect each other where when the gametes are produced
RT and rt stick together when producing gametes (from the F1 creations)
dominance and recessive stick together, which creates a baby that keeps
the two characteristics together (short wrinkled or Tall Round)

•

The dihybrid cross correct one, shows that in the gamete production of F2
the alleles segregate forming all possibilities (2 Heterozygous, Dominant,
Recessive) and the possibility of all of these depends of the parent’s
alleles), this proves Mendel’s Law of Assortment and segregation

•

Mendel was lucky again because he chose pea plants which all the
characteristics shown were all on different chromosomes so it easy to show
the law of assortment
...
(Human is a bad example because
there isn’t one gene that makes up a trait)

Humans- An example of Mendel experiments where there is only one gene that
determines eye color,
Blue/brown eye color
Brown is dominant over blue

Incomplete Dominance

Example: Four O’clock flower
Parental: Red (CR) x White (CW)
F1: 100% Pink CRCW

F2:
CR

CW

CR

CRCR

CRCW

CW

CRCW

C WC W

1 Red: 2 Pink: 1 White

Codominance

Blood type in humans, there is one gene that makes up blood trait
Phenotype: A, B, AB, O
3 alleles that determine blood type
Alleles- IA produces A protein,
IB produces B protein,
i produces no protein
A protein and B protein are found of the surface of red blood cells
A- IA i or IA IA
B- IB i or IB IB
AB- IA IB
O- ii

2 genes that are ii- don’t have protein on their red blood cells
It is a codominance because IA and IB are not dominant over each other
Rhesus factor-Rh factor
Rh+ is dominant over RhA + blood type can’t give to a -blood type, but a negative can give to negative
and positive, and a positive can give to positive
(but all depending on the blood type)
A rhogam is given to a Rh negative women whose baby is Rh positive (from the
dad, because + is dominant over -, in this situation the possibility of the baby
being RH+ varies whether the ad is heterozygous0 or homozygous for RH+) to
keep the baby’s blood from interacting from the mom’s blood, because in a RHblood, a RH+ is seen as a foreign substance

•

When you say you are blood type A, what you are telling people is that the
cells in your body make antibodies only to type B antigens
...
These surface antigens
can be attached to the surface of your blood cells (more specifically to the
plasma membrane surrounding the cells) or to proteins or lipids anywhere in
your body
...
(If your blood type is positive or negative, that refers to the Rh
factor
...


•

If you are blood type B, the situation is reversed
...


•

If you are blood type AB, your cells do not make antibodies against type A
or type B surface antigens
...


Early 1900’s Thomas Hunt Morgan
His Genetic Model Organism is Drosophila melanogaster, a type of flie
...
All of the flies had red flies until one fly
had white eyes
...
Usually, at least
one member of the family has a genetic disease, and by examining the
pedigree, clues to the mode of inheritance of the disorder and the potential risk
to other family members can be obtained
...


Evolution
Charles Darwin- Theory of Natural Selection

•

In 1831 Darwin takes a 5 year voyage, on the ship the “Beagle”

•

Darwin uses information from other scientists and people
...


•

Darwin, however, spent five years exploring the world
...


•

As he traveled from place to place, Darwin was surprised, not by the
differences between species, but by their similarities
...

This supports what Darwin is thinking about evolution of species, because
there needs to enough time to evolve
Thomas Malthus- An economist, who says there is competition and limited
resources in England
...

Le Marck- Acquired Characteristics (means characteristics gotten after birth) to
help the organism survive can be passed on to the next generation, and the
species change over time, which is wrong
...

• It is an evolutionary change occurs through traits between individuals; some
traits give the individual an extra survival probability
...


•

But the organisms that do have traits that make them survive, are then
passed on to the next generation and so on, and over time those traits are
more frequent in the population,

•

Also, when the environment changes, the characteristics that helped an
organism then didn’t help them now and die out, which is a part of natural
selection

•

Adaption- Any heritable characteristics that an increases an organism’s
ability to survive and reproduce in it’s environment

•

Fitness describes how well an organism can survive and reproduce in its
environment

•

For example if there are squirrels who have slightly different hair color, (due
to different breeds etc
...
7 billion years ago, the earth was formed, and living things couldn’t be
supported
...

Over millions of years, with these atoms organic molecules were formed to
then form “simple” cells to cells to form single-cell organism and multi-cellular
organism
The Experiment of Miller and Urey
They put the chemicals of primitive earth, to recreate the primitive earth into a
test tube and put electrical sparks as the energy source, which turned into
amino acids
...
Now there is a new set of classification, with 3 domains and 6
kingdoms

Old classification 5 kingdoms, but no Domains, but the rest (Phylum, Class etc
...


Finches – type of bird
...

How do you end up with different types of species?
•

The finches ended up in the Galapagos (different habitat than mainland)

•

Different food resources – they started eating other foods when lacking the
foods they were used to

•

Pressure of new habitat makes you eat certain foods with the modification
of the Genetic beaks
...
When the
Over evolution, there have been times where species have gone extinct95%-99% of species have gone extinct over time
...

(Only members of the same species can mate)

Two reasons why 2 organisms can’t be the same species
When two organisms fit into any of these categories, two different species are
formed,
Geographical Isolation- Isolated by geography, causing 2 different species
eventually , due to environment, gene variation and natural selection

---