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Title: Comprehensive Chemistry Notes
Description: Comprehensive chemistry notes - isotopes, atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron affinity, effective nuclear charge, electronegativity, etc. Additional notes on properties of groups (i.e. alkali metals, halogens, etc.) and details on oxyacids, binary acids, and polyatomic ions.
Description: Comprehensive chemistry notes - isotopes, atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron affinity, effective nuclear charge, electronegativity, etc. Additional notes on properties of groups (i.e. alkali metals, halogens, etc.) and details on oxyacids, binary acids, and polyatomic ions.
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Classification of Matter
●
●
Pure Substances
○ Elements
■ Made up of one type of atom
■ Diatomic molecules are made of 2 or more of the same atom
○ Compounds
■ Made up of at least 2 unique elements
Mixtures
○ Heterogeneous
■ Multiple phases
■ Also called a mechanical mixture
○ Homogeneous
■ One phase visible
■ Also called a solution
Isotopes and Ions
●
●
●
Isotopes
○ A change in the number of neutrons
○ Same number of protons and electrons
○ Chemically similar but may be physically different
Atomic Mass and Relative Abundance
○ The percentage of abundance of an isotope among all other isotopes of the same atom
○ There are 3 carbon isotopes
■ aerCarbon C12, C13, C14
■ C12 has a relative abundance of 99%, meaning 99% of carbon is C12
■ C13 has a relative abundance of 1%
■ C14 is unstable and decays naturally (radioactive)
○ Atomic mass is the average mass of an atom
■ It is the sum of the weights of all isotopes of an atom multiplied by their
respective relative abundances
■ For carbon, the atomic mass is:
(12amu x 0
...
01)
= 12
...
Physical Change
○ A change that doesn’t produce a new substance
○ Must be reversible
○ Examples: Changing state, dissolving
Chemical Properties
○ Characteristic behaviour when the substance reacts with another substance
○ Examples: Flammability, corrosion, bleaching (reactions with acids and bases) etc
...
7
■ 4 is the strongest, 0
...
Their relative abundance is 99%, 1% and
negligible respectively
○ C12 and C13 are stable while C14 is unstable and naturally decays
○ Σ of isotopes * relative abundance
■
●
Ions
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
Eg
...
99 + 13amu * 0
...
0107
Elements are generally neutral in charge (protons = electrons)
Elements are stable (unreactive) when they have full shells/orbitals of electrons (like
noble gases)
Elements tend to gain or lose electrons to achieve a state with a full octet
...
6)
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Elements that gain electrons to have complete octets (isoelectronic with noble gases) have a
negative charge called anions while those elements that lose electrons and have a positive charge
are called cations
the strong electromagnetic forces between oppositely charges ions draw them together such that
the result has no net charge
...
This is a more stable state and lattice energy is
released in the process
...
In something like MgO (alkaline earth metal +2/2) the ions can hold together more
and as such, don’t dissolve very much
Al2O3 is even less reactive in water (but all will react with acids where there are extra H+)
Salt does not dissolve in oil (oil is not polar)
In terms of electronegativity, if the EN difference between two elements is greater than 1
...
8 but no metal is involved, it is called polar or strongly polar
covalent
Naming Ionic Compounds (and Formula) (5
...
Carbon and oxygen
Can be CO, CO
or CO
2
3
CO is carbon oxide
mon
CO
is carbon xide
di
o
2
CO
is carbon oxide
tri
3
Symbol
Element
Ion
Charge
Ion Symbol
F
Fluorine
Fluoride
1
F
Cl
Chlorine
Chloride
1
Cl
Br
Bromine
Bromide
1
Br
I
Iodine
Iodide
1
I
O
Oxygen
Oxide
2
2
O
S
Sulphur
Sulphide
2
2
S
N
Nitrogen
Nitride
3
3
N
P
Phosphorous
Phosphide
3
3
P
●
●
●
●
Writing chemical formulas of ionic compounds
○ The total charge must be zero
○ The quantity of each ion is written as a subscript ( a 1 is not written)
Example: Magnesium and Chlorine & Aluminium and Oxygen
2+
○ Mg
& Cl
& Cl
= MgCl
→ Magnesium Chloride
2
2
2
○ Al
+ & Al & O 2
+ O
& O
→ Aluminium Oxide
3
3
In Lewis diagrams, we show the ions with gull shells (or a lack of in Na’s case)
○ It is the charges that force ions together
○ It is a more stable state and lattice energy is released
Ionic compounds form crystals and have a very high melting point
○ The are hard and brittle
○ If dissolved, they can form electrolytes
○ Ionic compounds can dissolve because water is polar and pulls the charged ions apart
●
●
Multiple Ionic Charges
○ Earlier we said that the atom wanted to complete orbitals if 2, 8 or 8 electrons
○ Not really true as we get to larger atoms as the orbitals are more complex
■ Good enough for first 20 elements
○ Common metals have multiple ionic charges (valances)
Stock naming system
○ For elements with multiple ionic charges, we need to know which form is being used
○ eg
...
Chlorate ClO
3
2O
O
Normal
+O
ClO
2
ClO
3
ClO
4
Chlorite
Chlorate
Perchlorate
+
+H
+
+2H
+
+3H
3
PO
4
2
HPO
4
H 4
PO
2
H 4
PO
3
Phosphate
Hydrogen
Phosphate
Dihydrogen
Phosphate
ClO
Hypochlorite
●
○ Notice that the charge does not change
Hydrogen adds a +1 charge to a polyatomic ion
Normal
Trihydrogen
Phosphate
Acids
● Acids are reactive and involve ions
● Acids are corrosive, sour, water based solutions that react with metals and dissolve things
● Binary acids are ionic
+
● One of the ions is H
, which we know is very reactive
● Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
● Acid + Base → Salt + Water
● Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water
Naming
● We use the prefix “hydro” and end with the suffix “ic”
● Hydrogen + Chlorine → HCl
(aq)
○ (aq) stands for aqueous and it means dissolved in water
● Note: Salt doesn’t necessarily mean table salt
Oxy Acids
● The addition of hydrogen ions can reduce the polyatomic ions into neutral compounds
○ Acids are neutral
+
● These ionic compounds when dissolved in water will result in the H
ion and so result in acids
● We call them oxy acids due to the presence of oxygen
HClO
HClO
3
HClO
4
Hypochlorous Acid
HClO
2
Chlorous Acid
Chloric Acid
Perchlorous Acid
Title: Comprehensive Chemistry Notes
Description: Comprehensive chemistry notes - isotopes, atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron affinity, effective nuclear charge, electronegativity, etc. Additional notes on properties of groups (i.e. alkali metals, halogens, etc.) and details on oxyacids, binary acids, and polyatomic ions.
Description: Comprehensive chemistry notes - isotopes, atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron affinity, effective nuclear charge, electronegativity, etc. Additional notes on properties of groups (i.e. alkali metals, halogens, etc.) and details on oxyacids, binary acids, and polyatomic ions.