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Chemistry IGCSE
Section A: Principles of Chemistry
Chapter 1: States of Matter
1) Name the three states of matter and each one’s particles (3)
...

-Diagram of particles:

-Spacing between particles:
Close together and touching one another
...

-Movement of particles:
Vibrate about fixed positions but do not move apart
...

-Diagram of particles:

-Spacing between particles:
Close together and touching one another
...

-Movement of particles:
Move around and slide past one another
...

Gas (6):
-Example:
Water vapour
...

-Arrangement of particles:
Irregular
...

-Forces between particles:
Non-existant
...

b) Why does the change occur? (3)
The particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster
...
The regular pattern is broken down and the
particles can now slide past one another
...

b) Why does the change occur? (3)
The particles lose kinetic energy and vibrate slower
...

The particles arrange themselves into a regular pattern and are no
longer able to slide past one another
...

b) Why does the change occur? (2)
The particles gain kinetic energy and move further apart
...

Gas to liquid (2):
a) How do you bring about the change?
Cool the gas until it condenses
...
The particles eventually
clump together to form a liquid
...

b) Why does the change occur? (2)
The particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster and faster
...


Chapter 2: Atoms
1) How do we know that matter is made up of tiny, moving particles?
Because of the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion
...

b) Describe what is seen
...

c) What does this mean?
A few very tiny crystals can produce a highly intense colour
...

e) What does this experiment indicate? (2)
That there are a large number of number of particles of potassium
manganate (VII) in a very small amount of solid
...

3) Answer these questions on diffusion:
a) Where can this process occur?
In both liquids and gases
...

The diffusion of bromine from one flask to another
...

d) What has happened after 5 minutes and why? (4)
The gas has diffused into the other flask
...
The particles can therefore easily mix
together
...

4) What are molecules made up of?
Most molecules are made up of two or more atoms covalently bonded
together
...
The
properties of a compound are likely to be different from the
elements that have been used to make it
...

6) Name sixtechniques to separate mixtures
...

7) What is each technique used to do? Give an example of each
...

-Evaporation:
To separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid has
similar a solubility in both cold and hot solvent
...

-Simple distillation:
To separate a liquid from a solution, for example water from a
solution of sodium chloride in water
...

-Paper chromatography:
To separate substances that have a different solubility in a given
solvent, for example different coloured inks that have been mixed to
make black ink)
...

2) Where is the nucleus found in an atom?
In the middle
...

4) Answer the following questions on electrons:
a) How are they arranged in atoms?

4

Around the nucleus of atoms in different energy levels called electron
shells
...
The second shell surrounds the
first and is therefore bigger and further away from the nucleus
...

c) How many electrons does the first shell want?
2 electrons
...

e) How many electrons does thethird shell want?
8 electrons
...

g) What happens when a shell becomes full?
The next one is started
...
4
i) If magnesium has 12 electrons, what is its electronic configuration?
Magnesium, Mg 2
...
2
j) If potassium has 19 electrons, what is its electronic configuration?
Potassium, C 2
...
8
...
m
...

7) What is the atomic number?
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element
...

9) What is the mass number?

5

The number of protons and neutrons in total in the nucleus of an
atom of an element
...

11) What is the smaller number on the periodic table?
Atomic number
...

b) Atomic number:
3 (the smaller number)
...

d) Number of electrons:
3 (the smaller number)
...

14) What are isotopes? (2)
Atoms that have the same atomic number but a different mass
number
...

15) Name an isotope of the following element and describe it as
shown:
Carbon-12:

-6 protons
...

-6 neutrons
...

-6 electrons
...

16) How is the relative atomic mass calculated?
From the masses and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a
particular element
...

18) What is meant by relative abundance of an isotope?
The percentage of an isotope on earth
...
1 ´ atoms no
...
2 ´ atoms no
...

20) By knowing the relative abundance of their isotopes calculate the
relative atomic mass of:
a) 75% of chlorine-35 and 25% of chlorine-37:
75
25
(
´ 35) + (
´ 37) 26
...
25 = 35
...

100
100
b) 78
...
1% of magnesium-25, 11
...
6
10
...
3
(
´ 24) + (
´ 25) + (
´ 26) 18
...
525 + 2
...
327
100
100
100
21) How are the elements on the periodic table arranged?
In order of their atomic number
...

2) What is a mole?
A measure of the amount of a substance
...

-MgSO4
...

4) What is the formula to find out the number of moles of a
compound or element?

No
...

r
...
m

5) Calculate the number of moles of:
a) 10g of CaCO3:
10100=0
...

b) 95g of MgCl2:
9595= 1 mole
...

6) What is the formula to find out the mass of a compound or
element?
Mass (g) = no
...
f
...
a
...

7) Calculate the mass of:
a) 1 mole of CO2:
12+16+16=44  1x44=44g
...
5=36
...
5=73g
...
5 moles of hydrogen atoms:
0
...
5g
...
2g of C and 4
...

b) 12g of C and 4g of H:

8

Chemical formula= CH4
...

Aluminium + Copper (II) Oxide  Aluminium Oxide + Copper
...

Magnesium Oxide + Nitric Acid  Magnesium Nitrate + Water
...

b) Liquid:
(l)
...

d) Aqueous:
(aq)
...

4) What is meant by molecular formula and what is it for butane?
This gives the actual number of each type of atom present in a
compound
...

5) What is meant by empirical formula and what is it for butane?
This gives the simplest ratio of atoms in a compound
...

6) A substance contains 92
...
69% hydrogen
...
f
...
of 78
...


9

Ratio: 1 : 1
...

Molecular formula: 12+1 (mass of empirical formula) = 13
...
f
...
= 78 

78
= 6
...

13

7) If 25g of CaCO3 is heated what mass of CaO will be produced?
CaCO3no
...
25 moles
...
f
...
40 +1 +(16 ´ 3) 100

-From Equation:
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
...
25 : 0
...

Mass = no
...
f
...
= 0
...
25 x 56 = 14g
...
of moles=

mass 15

= 0
...

r
...
m
...
2 : 0
...
of moles x r
...
m
...
15 x 44 = 0
...
6g
...
00g potassium hydroxide is neutralised with hydrochloric
acid:
KOH + HCl => KCl + H2O:
KOH= 8g  no
...
15 moles
...
f
...
39 +16 +1 56

KOH : KCl  1 : 1  0
...
15
Mass = no
...
f
...
=> 0
...
5 = 10
...

10) What is the formula to find out Concentration?

Concentration (mol/dm3 ) =

No
...

Volume (dm3 )

11) If the Volume is in cm3 what do you do to it in order to convert
it into litres (dm3)?

10

Volume (cm3 )
Volume(dm ) =

...
of moles
´1000
...
of moles
´1000
...
of moles =
´ Concentration (mol/dm3 )
...
0 cm3 of a solution of potassium hydroxide are neutralised by
35
...
75 mol/dm3
...

HCL= No
...
75=
1000
1000

0
...


KOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
...
of moles
0
...
05mol/dm3
...
0 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide are neutralised by
27
...
250 mol/dm3,
what is the concentration (mol/dm3) of the sodium hydroxide solution?
H2SO4= No
...
5
´ C
´ 0
...
006875 moles
...

2:1  0
...
014

C=

No
...
014
´ 1000
´ 1000 = 0
...

V
25

17) A solution of sodium carbonate contains 53
...
Calculate:
a) The concentration (mol/dm3) of the sodium carbonate solution
...
of moles =

mass (g) 53
0
...
5 
= 2mol/dm3
...
f
...
25

b) The volume of aqueous hydrochloric acid of concentration
0
...
0cm3 of the sodium carbonate
solution
...


of moles :

V
25
´ C
´ 2=
1000
1000

0
...


2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
...
05  2 = 0
...


V=

No
...
025
´1000
´ 1000 = 100cm3
...
250

18) Give the step by step method of how to accurately find the
volume of sulphuric acid that reacts with 10cm3 of sodium hydroxide
solution
...
Take 10cm3 of NaOH (measured using a glass pipette) and place in
the flask with 2 drops of indicator
...
Add the acid and swirl as it is added, so that it mixes well
...
Stop adding when indicator changes colour
...
Take the reading
...
Repeat (at least 2 more times) or until the 3 readings are with
0
...

6
...

7
...
Leave to dry in a warm place so crystals of
NaCl can form
...

2) How are ions formed?
By the loss or gain of electron
3) How do you work out the charge on an ion formed by any atom?
(5)
Find its electronic configuration
...
If it looses electrons is becomes positive and if it gains
electrons it become negative
...
Write the formula
...
1
-Loss or gain:
Looses 1 electron
...

-Charge:
+1
...

5) What is the charge on the ion formed by an atom of fluorine and
what is its formula? (5)
-Electronic configuration:
2
...

-Becomes positive or negative:
Negative
...

-Formula:
F -
...
It is commonly known has
rusting
...

8) What is an ionic compound?
Compounds that are made up of ions
...

Na 2
...
1  Na+ 2
...
8
...
8
...
8
...
This means its outer
shell has 8 electrons and its electronic configuration is 2
...
It is now
positive and its formula is Na+
...
8
...
It becomes negative as
it has gained an electron and its formula is Cl-
...

Mg 2
...
2 Mg2+ 2
...
6 O2- 2
...
8
...
This means
its outer shell has 8 electrons and its electronic configuration is 2
...

It is now positive and its formula is Mg2+
...
8, having 8 electrons on the outer shell
...

11) What is ionic bonding?
A strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charge particles
...

13) Do ionic compounds have high or low melting and boiling points and
why? (3)
They have high melting and boiling points because the electrostatic
forces are strong and there are many of them to break in an ionic
crystal
...


Chapter 7: Covalent Substances
1) What is covalent bonding? (2)
The force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and a pair
of electrons shared between them
...
In this way the shared region of the
electron shells bonds the two nuclei together
...
This means
hydrogen chloride is a covalent compound
...

5) What are molecular forces?
The forces between the molecules
...

7) Do simple molecular substances have high or low melting and boiling
points and why? (3)
They have low melting and boiling points because the electrostatic
forces are typically weak compared to ionic compounds and therefore,
very little energy is required to overcome them
...

9) Name 3 examples of covalent structures
...

10) Describe the bonding, structure, forces, properties and uses of
the following covalent structures (2):
a) Diamond (5):
-Bonding (3):
-Each carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds to other carbon
atoms
...

-Structure:

-Forces (2):
-The covalent bonds are strong
...

-Properties (3):
-Very high melting point (many strong covalent bonds have to be
broken, which requires a lot of heat energy)
...

-Does not conduct electricity (all four outer shell electrons are used
to form bonds; there are no electrons that are “delocalised” and free
to move
...

-Jewellery
...

-A layered structure is formed
...
The fourth electron from each atom exists between the layers
and is delocalised, as in the bonding of metals
...

-The forces of attraction between the layers are weak
...

-Soft and slippery (forces of attraction between the layers are weak
so the layers easily slide over one another and can easily be
separated)
...

-Uses (2):
-Lubricant
...


Chapter 8: Metallic Crystals
1) What are metals?
They have giant, three-dimensional lattice structures in which
positive ions are arranged in a regular pattern in a sea of delocalised
electrons
...

3) Do metals have high or low melting points and why? (3)
Most metals have high melting and boiling points because metallic
bonds are strong and there are many of them to overcome in a giant
structure, therefore a lot of heat energy is required
...

5) Are metals malleable and ductile or not and why? (3)
They are malleable and ductile because the layers of positive ions can
easily slide over on another and take up different positions
...


Chapter 9: Electrolysis
1) What is an electric current?
A flow of electrons or ions
...

3) When can they conduct electricity and why? (2)
When molten or in an aqueous solution (dissolved in water) because
the ions are free to move
...


18

5) When does electrolysis take place? (2)
When an electrical current is passed through a molten ionic compound
or through an aqueous solution of an ionic compound
...

7) Draw and label a diagram to show electrolysis (5):

a) What are probes attached to a cell for electrolysis called?
Electrodes
...

c) What is the name of the positive electrode?
Anode
...

e) What is an electrolyte?
A substance that is being electrolysed
...

b) What are the ions called that are attracted to them?
Cations
...

d) What happens at the cathode in terms of electrons?
The metals gain electrons at the cathode in order to become metal
atoms
...

9) Answer these questions on anodes:

19

a) Are positive or negative ions attracted to them?
Negative ions are attracted here
...

c) What are normally negative ions?
Non-metals
...

e) What is this reaction called?
Oxidation
...

2Br- - 2e- Br2:
Oxidation
...

b) What is the equation at the anode?
2Cl- - 2e- Cl2
...

d) What is the equation at the cathode?
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
...

f) What was the gas?
Chlorine
...
If chlorine is present it goes red then
instantly goes white
...

b) Na+ + e- Na
...

d) 2I- I2 + 2e-
...

f) Zn2+ + 2e- Zn
...

h) Li+ + e- Li
...

15) What are the two compounds in brine?
Water and sodium chloride
...

17) State two uses of sodium hydroxide
...


O2
Cl2
H2
O2

from

Section B: Chemistry of the Elements
Chapter 10: The Periodic Table
1) How are the elements listed?
In order of increasing atomic number
...

3) What are the vertical columns called?
Groups
...

5) What is similar about each group and why?
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell
...

7) What is Group 1 called and why?
Alkali metals, because they all react with water to form alkaline
solutions
...

9) What is Group 8 or 0 called?
Noble gases
...
This means
they do not form compounds with other elements
...
This means non of
the atoms wants to gain or lose electrons
...

12) How does the reactivity of non-metals change when you go down
the periodic table?
The reactivity decreases
...

-They are soft and can easily be cut with a knife
...

-They have low densities (all three float on water)
...

-They burn in air or oxygen to form white, solid oxides
...

3) Write the balanced chemical equation in terms of M of the
following reactions:
a) Lithium, sodium or potassium burning in oxygen:
4M + O2 2M2O
...

4) What are the observations when you add lithium to water? (4)
-Moves around the surface of the water
...

-Bubbles of gas
...

5) What are the observations when you add sodium to water? (5)
-Moves around the surface of the water
...

-Bubbles of gas
...

-Gets smaller and smaller, eventually disappears
...

-Hissing sound
...

-Melts into a shiny ball
...

-Gets smaller and smaller, eventually disappears
...


Chapter 12: The Group 7 Elements- Chlorine, Bromine and
Iodine
1) What are the physical states at temperature and the colours of
the following elements?
a) Chlorine:
-Gas at room temperature
...

b) Bromine:
-Liquid at room temperature
...

-Evaporates to form a brown gas
...

-Black solid
...

2) Do chlorine, bromine and iodine react in similar ways with iron?
Yes
...

4) What is the substance called when they react with iron?

23

Metal halide
...

6) What experiment could you do to show if chlorine would displace
bromine from an aqueous solution of a metal bromide? Write the word
equation
...

React chlorine with potassium bromide solution
...

7) What experiment could you do to show if chlorine would displace
iodine from an aqueous solution of a metal iodide? Write the word
equation
...

Chlorine + sodium iodide  sodium chloride + iodine
solution
solution
This happens because chlorine is more reactive than iodine
...

React bromine with magnesium iodide solution
...

9 Name the colours for the following aqueous solutions:
a) Aqueous chlorine:
Pale green or colourless when diluted
...

c) Aqueous iodine:
Brown
...

b) NaCl + Br2
No reaction
...

d) NaI + Br2
2NaBr + I2
...

It gains electrons and is therefore reduced
...

12) Does the halide ion gain or lose electrons in displacement
reactions? Write the ionic half equation
...

13) If there is both reaction and oxidation taking place what is the
reaction called?
Redox reaction
...
Hydrochloric acid is
hydrogen chloride dissolved in water to become acidic
...

16) What makes HCl (aq) acidic?
The fact that it contains H+(aq) ions
...

-Has a low pH and therefore turns universal indicator red
...

b) Metal carbonate:
-Forms a metal chloride solution, water and carbon dioxide gas
...


Chapter 13: Oxygen and Oxides
1) What percentage of each gas is there in air? (4)
78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, 0
...
04% of
carbon
...

3) Describe the experiment when using copper
...


25

-Heat the copper at one end on the silica tube using a blue
Bunsenflame
...

-As the volume of gas in the syringes decreases move the Bunsen
burner along the tube so that it is always heating fresh copper
...

-The copper is reacting with the oxygen in the air to form black
copper(II) oxide
...
This means that 21% has been used
up, therefore the air was 21% oxygen
...

5) Describe the experiment when using iron
...

-Put the burette in a trough full of water
...

-This is because the iron reacts with the oxygen in the air
...

6) How do you work out the percentage of oxygen?

Percentage of oxygen =

volume of oxygen used
´ 100
...

Similar experiment can be done as the iron one using a piece of white
phosphorus
...

9) How can you produce oxygen from hydrogen peroxide?
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) decomposes slowly to form water and
oxygen
...

11) How can the oxygen be collected and why?
Over water, because it is not very soluble in water and therefore
very little oxygen will be lost
...

-2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)
...

-C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
...

-S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
...

-Very slightly soluble in water
...

-Magnesium hydroxide has a pH of about 10
...

-Dissolves in water to form an acidic solution called carbonic acid
...

c) Sulphur dioxide (3):
-Acidic oxide
...

-Sulphurous acid has a pH of 3-4
...

-They form alkaline solutions when dissolved in water
...

-They form acidic solutions when dissolved in water
...

16) What will always produce carbon dioxide?
A reaction between any metal carbonate and an acid
...

18) What is the most convenient form of calcium carbonate to use
and why? (3)

27

Marble chips because they are very easy to handle and the reaction
is not too fast, so the carbon dioxide is produced at a rate that
makes it easy to collect
...

-It can be collected by downward delivery in air, as it is more dense
than air
...

21) What is the breakdown by heating called?
Thermal decomposition
...

Copper(II) carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate and
zinc carbonate
...

-CuCO3(s)  CuO(s) + CO2(s)
...

-MgCO3(s)  MgO(s) + CO2(s)
...

-CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(s)
...

-ZnCO3(s)  ZnO(s) + CO2(s)
...
(2)
-Although carbon dioxide is not very soluble in water at normal
atmospheric pressure, it becomes much more soluble when put under
pressure
...

-Carbon dioxide does not support combustion and is denser than air,
so it “sits” on top of a burning fuel and prevents oxygen from getting
in
...

25) How does acid rain form? (4)

28

Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved carbon dioxide (Carbon
Dioxide + Water  Carbonic Acid)
...

However, certain pollutant gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen can cause pH to drop significantly below this value
...

26) Name 3 problems acid rain causes
...

-Lowering the pH of lakes and rivers so that fish and other aquatic
life cannot survive
...

-Damages crops and forests
...

2) What is the word equation for a metal that reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid?
Metal + dilute hydrochloric acid  metal chloride + hydrogen
...

4) What are the observations when each of the following metals
reacts with dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4? (4)
a) Magnesium (4):
-Bubbles of gas
...

-Reaction mixture gets hot
...

b) Aluminium (3):
-Slow to start reacting when cold, but bubble form when heated
...

-Colourless solution is formed
...

-Zinc disappears
...

d) Iron (4):
-Bubbles of gas
...

-Pale green solution formed
...
The
product will be formed initially as water vapour, but if cooled it can
be condensed to form water
...

7) What is the test for hydrogen and what is the result?
-Test:
Lit splint
...

8) What is the test for water?
-Test:
Add the water to anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
...

9) What is the chemical equation for this?
CuSO4(s) + H2O(l)  CuSO45H2O(s)
...

-Freeze the liquid and measure its freezing point
...

-Freezing point should be 0C
...

2) How does each metal react with cold water or steam? (4)
-Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium react vigorously wit cold
water to form a solution of the metal hydroxide and hydrogen
...


30

-Aluminium, zinc and iron do not react with cold water but do react
with steam, without burning, to form metal oxide and hydrogen
...

3) How does each metal react with dilute acids? (3)
-Potassium, sodium and lithium react vigorously to form metal salt
and hydrogen
...

-Copper, silver, gold and platinum do not react
...

5) What is the oxide said to be when the oxygen is removed from the
metal oxide?
Reduced
...

7) What is the substance called that carries out the oxidation?
The oxidising agent
...

-Both metal and the oxide should be in powdered form
...

c) So, what are the observations?
The mixture will grow very brightly
...

9) Where is carbon in the reactivity series and why? (3)
Between aluminium and zinc because it can reduce zinc oxide, but it
can’t reduce aluminium oxide
...
(3)
Chlorides, nitrates and sulphates
...

b) Nitrates:
All metal nitrates are soluble in water
...

12) Write the chemical equations for the following mixtures:
a) Magnesium and iron (II) sulphate:
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
...

c) Lead and silver nitrate:
Pb(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)  Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag (s)
...

e) Iron and copper(II) sulphate:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)  FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
...

14) What two substances have to be present in order for rust to
form?
Water and Oxygen
...

16) What are three ways you can protect iron from water?
By painting it, by plastic coating it or by greasing it with oil
...
This works because the zinc is more reactive
than the iron so it will react in preference to the iron and form a
protective oxide coating
...

2) What are the 4 steps of flame tests?
-Clean the end of a piece of nichrome wire by dipping it into
concentrated HCl and placing it into the flame of a Bunsen burner
...

-Dip in hydrochloric acid and then into the sample
...

3) What is the colour we should see for the following ions?
Li+:
Red
...

K+:
Lilac
...

4) What is the test for ammonium ions and the result?
-Test:
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide to the substance and warm the
mixture
...

5) What is the colour we should see for the following ions after
adding sodium hydroxide to them?
Fe2+:
Green precipitate
...

Fe3+:
Brown precipitate
...

7) What is the colour of the precipitate when the following halides
are present?
-Chloride:
White precipitate
...

-Iodide:
Yellow precipitate
...
Add
barium chloride
...

9) What are the two methods that you can test for carbonates?

33

-Test:
Add dilute hydrochloric acid
...
The gas produced turns limewater milky
...

-Result:
Squeaky pop
...

-Result:
Splint relights
...

-Result:
Litmus paper turns red then bleaches
...

-Result:
Turns milky
...

-Result:
Red litmus turns blue
...

b) Hydrocarbon:
Compounds that are made up of carbon and hydrogen only
...

d) Unsaturated:
An organic compound that contains a carbon-to-carbon double
covalent bond
...

f) Isomers:
They are compounds with the same molecular formula but a different
displayed formulae
...

2) What is the general formula of an alkane?
CnH2n+2
...

4) Give the molecular and displayed formula and if available the chain
of isomers of the following alkanes:
a) Methane (2):
-Molecular formula:
CH4
...


35

-Displayed formula:

c) Propane (2):
-Molecular formula:
C3H 8
...

-Displayed formula:

-Name and draw the straight chain isomer:
Methylpropane

e) Pentane:
-Molecular formula: C5H12
...

6) What is combustion? (2):
-Also known as burning (oxidation reaction)
...

7) What is the difference between complete and incomplete
combustion of an alkane and what is their word and chemical formula?
-Complete (3):
-In a plentiful supply of air
...

-CH4 + 2O2 2H2O + CO2
...

-Alkane + Oxygen  Water + Carbon monoxide
...

8) Why is it dangerous to breathe in carbon monoxide?
Because it is toxic and it reduces the capacity of blood to carry
oxygen
...

-CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr
...

11) What is needed for an alkane to react with a halogen?
UV light
...


Chapter 19: Alkenes
1) What is an alkene?
A group of unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-to-carbon
double covalent bond
...

3) What is the alkene name, molecular and displayed formula and
isomer chains when available of these alkenes?
a) Methane:
NONE
...

-C2H4
...

-C3H6
...

-C4H8
...

C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2
...
It should go from orange to
colourless
...

2) What are alkalis?
They are bases that are soluble in water
...

4) What do neutral, acidic and alkaline solutions have a pH scale of?
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7
...
Alkalis have a pH
above 7 and the higher it gets the more alkaline the substance is
...

Litmus, methyl orange, phenolphthalein
...

-When pH is between 5 and 8 litmus turns purple
...

b) Methyl orange:
-When pH is 3 or less methyl orange turns red
...

-When pH is 5 or more methyl orange turns yellow
...

-When pH is 10 or more phenolphthalein is red
...

8) Describe colours in universal indicator
...
When it is a weak acid it
goes yellow/orange and when it is a strong acid it goes orange/red
...

9) In what two forms is universal indicator?
One in solution in ethanol and the other is paper that has been
soaked in the indicator solution and dried
...

10) What is an acid?
A substance that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+)
...

b) Nitric acid:
HNO3(aq)  H+ + NO3-(aq)
...

12) What ways can you replace the hydrogen ions in an acid by a
metal ion? (3)
You can react them with a metal, a base (metal oxide or metal
hydroxide) and a metal carbonate
...

14) When acids react with metals what do they form?
A salt and hydrogen
...


39

16) When acids react with metal carbonates what do they form?
A salt carbon dioxide and water
...

b) Zinc and dilute sulphuric acid:
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
...

d) Sodium hydroxide with dilute hydrochloric acid:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
...

f) Copper(II) carbonate and dilute sulphuric acid:
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
...

-All nitrates
...

-All common sulphates, except for barium, calcium and lead(II)
sulphate
...

b) Insoluble salts (3):
-Silver chloride and lead(II) chloride
...

-All common carbonates, except for sodium, potassium and ammonium
carbonate
...

-Dilute acid + metal carbonate
...

Dilute acid + base:
18) Which are the only common bases that are very soluble in water?
(2)
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide
...


40

-Add the insoluble base to the warm dilute acid and stir until the
base is in excess
...

-Leave the filtrate (dilute solution of the salt) in a warm place in the
laboratory so that the water evaporates and crystals form
...

20) What is the method to prepare a soluble base (alkali)? (4)
-Put an aqueous solution of the alkali into a conical flask and add a
suitable indicator
...

-Add powdered charcoal and shake the mixture to remove the colour
of the indicator
...

Dilute acid + metal carbonate:
21) What method is used for insoluble carbonates?
Most metal carbonates are insoluble in water and hence the method
for the acid + insoluble base can be followed
...

23) What method is used for soluble carbonates?
The procedure for acid + soluble base must be followed
...

Dilute acid + metal:
25) Which are the only metals commonly used? (3)
Magnesium, iron and zinc
...

27) What is a good indication of neutralisation?
Until no more bubbles are formed
...

29) What is a precipitation reaction?
A reaction that produces a precipitate
...
One solution must contain the
required positive ion and the other solution the required negative ion
...

32) How is the precipitate of silver chloride removed? (3)
By filtration, washed with distilled water and left to dry in a warm
place
...

34) What is titration?
A method of finding out exactly the volume of one solution that is
required to react with a given volume of another solution
...

-Add a few drops of an indicator, such as methyl orange
...

-Add the acid to the alkali until the indicator just changes colour
...

-Subtract the initial reading form the final reading to obtain the
volume of acid added
...


Chapter 22: Energetics
1) Answer these questions on exothermic reactions (6):
a) What is the temperature change?
Temperature rises
...

c) Do the reactants or do the products have more energy?
The reactants have more energy than the products
...

e) What kind of reactions are exothermic?
All combustion reactions
...

C7H16(l) + 11O2(g)  7CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
...

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
...

b) Where does the energy move?
Energy is taken in from the surroundings
...

d) Why do they need to take in energy?
In order to make up the difference
...

Carbonate
Citrate
Dioxide
+
+
NaHCO3 + H (l)  Na + CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
...
 Ammonium + Nitrate Solution
...
 NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
...

b) Where does the heat go?
Heat is lost to the surroundings
...

d) What has happened to the energy?
It has been released
...


43

a) Is H positive or negative?
Positive
...

c) Does the temperature of the surroundings rise or fall?
Temperature of surroundings decrease
...

e) So, are bonds broken or made?
Bonds are broken
4) What symbol represents the amount of heat energy change?
H
...
1mol/dm3 hydrochloric
acid into a polystyrene cup supported in a beaker
...

-Tip approximately 0
...

-Measure and record the highest temperature reached by the
mixture
...

-Calculate the heat given out during the reaction by using an
equation
...

8) What is the specific heat capacity?
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
solution by 1C
...

2) How does the concentration affect rate of reaction? (4)
Increasing the concentration will increase the number particles there
are in a certain space
...
The more collision there are in a certain amount of time, the

44

faster the rate of reaction is
...

3) How does the surface area affect rate of reaction? (4)
The smaller the pieces of solid, the larger the surface area will be
...
The more collisions there are in a certain amount
of time, the faster the rate of reaction is
...

4) How does the temperature at which the reaction takes place
affect the rate of reaction? (4)
Increasing the temperature increases the energy the particles have
(kinetic energy)
...
The more collisions there are in a
certain amount of time, the faster the rate of reaction is
...

5) What is a catalyst?
A substance that increases rate of reaction but stays unchanged
...
The more
collisions there are in a certain amount of time, the faster the rate
of reaction is
...

7) How can you recognize a catalyst? (5)
-Do the reaction
...

-Do the reaction again, this time with the catalyst
...

-If it hasn’t changed colour or weight it is a catalyst
...

2) What is the symbol for an arrow that shows that the reaction is
reversible?

...

4) What is the white powder?
Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
...

6) What equation represents these reactions?
CuSO45H2O(s)  CuSO4(s) + H2O(l)
...

8) Why does this happen? (3)
As the Ammonium chloride is heated, ammonia and hydrogen chloride
(colourless gases) rise up the tube, where they cool
...
This is a
reversible reaction
...

10) What processes occur in the test tube?
Neutralisation and decomposition
...

12) When is this only possible?
In a closed container where none of the gases can escape
...

14) What is the reaction for it?
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
...

16) What are the 3 conditions of the Häber Process and why? (3)
-Temperature:
The forward reaction is exothermic so it produces heat as it occurs
...
A compromise is reached, so we use a moderate
temperature of 450C, giving a good yield in a reasonable time
...

-Pressure:
The number of moles of the N2 + 3H2 is 4
...
So the pressure goes from high to low
...
A compromise is reached, so we
use a moderate pressure of 200 atm, giving a good yield in a
reasonable time
...

2) Hydrogen is made from the reaction of steam and methane
...

4) Gases are cooled and ammonia turns to liquid to make liquid
ammonia
...

18) Name 5 properties of ammonia (5):
-Ammonia is a gas at room temperature
...

-It has a pungent choking smell
...

-When dissolved in water ammonium hydroxide is produced NH3(g) +
H2O  NH4OH(aq)
...

19) Name 4 things that ammonia is used for:
1) To make nitric acid (HNO3)
...

3) To make explosives
...


Section E: Chemistry in Society
Chapter 25: Extraction and Uses of Metals
1) How does the difficulty and expense to extract a metal depend on
its reactivity?
The more reactive the metal the harder and more expensive it is to
extract
...

3) Which elements are extracted by electrolysis? (6)
Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
...


47

5) Which metals occur naturally as elements?
Gold, silver and platinum
...

7) What is the electrolyte made out of?
A solution of aluminium oxide dissolved in molten cryolite
...

9) What is the name of aluminium ore?
Bauxite
...

11) Why can it only be extracted by electrolysis? (2)
Because it has a very high melting point and because aluminium is
more reactive than carbon so it will not react in the same way as
haematite
...

13) What is the reaction at the positive electrode?
2O2 – 4e- O2
...
It corrodes
...

Extraction of iron:
16) What 4 raw materials needed? (3)
Iron ore (haematite), coke (carbon), limestone (calcium carbonate)
and air
...

-Hot air blast containing oxygen (at the bottom from both sides)
...


48

-The carbon dioxide reacts with more coke:
CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g)
...

-The iron melts and collects at the bottom of the furnace
...

-The calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide, which is an impurity in
the iron ore to form calcium silicate:
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)  CaSiO3(l)
...

-The oxygen in the air is used to react with coke to form carbon
monoxide
...

c) Coke:
It reacts with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which is the reducing
agent
...

19) Name the reactivity series (15):
Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Carbon (C)
Zinc (Zn)
Iron (Fe)
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H)
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
Platinium (Pt)

49

20) Name 6 uses of aluminium and the most important propertyfor
each:
Use (6):Most important property (6):
-Aeroplane bodies
...

-Overhead power cables
...

-Saucepans
...

-Food cans
...

-Window frames
...

-Drinking cans
...

21) Name 3 uses of iron and the most important property for each:
Use (3):Most important property (3):
-Car bodies
...

-Iron nails
...

-Ships, girders and bridges
-Strong
...

2) What is the first step of the refining of crude oil?
Fractional distillation
...

4) Why does fractional distillation work?
Because the fractions are composed of molecules of different boiling
points (they are different sizes)
...

6) Name the five steps of fractional distillation
...
The vapour is then
fed into the bottom of the fractionating column
...

-The hydrocarbons that have boiling points lower than 400C remain
as gases and rise up the column
...

-The different fraction will condense at different heights according
to their different boiling points
...


50

-The fraction with the lowest boiling point (refinery gas) remains as a
gas and comes out at the top of the column
...

8) Name the 6 different fractions and what they are used for
...

Fuel oil
Fuel for ships and industrial heating
...

9) Does the no
...

10) Does the boiling point increase or decrease as you go down?
It increases
...

12) What is the problem of fractional distillation? (2)
The amount of gasoline fraction in crude oil is far less than is
needed
...

13) What process is the solution to this?
Cracking
...

15) What does it require?
Heat (600-700C) and a catalyst (aluminium oxide)
...

-C10H24 (heat+Al2O3)  C8H18 + C2H4
...

18) What can the ethene be used for?
A polymer called poly(ethene)

51

19) What happens to some of the fuel when petrol or diesel is burnt
in cars?
Some of the fuel is not completely burnt because of lack of oxygen
...

21) What two gases, that are bad for the environment, react in the
car engine too and why?
The temperature in a car engine is high enough for nitrogen and
oxygen to react to form oxides of nitrogen
...


Chapter 27: Synthetic Polymers
1) What is an addition polymer?
A long-chain molecule that has been formed when many small
molecules (monomers) have been joined together
...

3) What is polymerisation?
When lots of single monomers are added together when the carbonto-carbon double bond breaks and a long chain (polymer) forms
...


b) Propene:
-Poly(propene)
...


52

Chapter 28: The Industrial Manufacture of Chemicals
1) What process is used for the industrial preparation of ammonia?
The Häber Process
...

3) What are the raw materials for the Häber Process? (2)
Liquid air to give nitrogen and steam and methane to give Hydrogen
...

Therefore the best yield of the product of ammonia will occur at a
low temperature, but then the rate will be too slow at a low
temperature
...

-Catalyst:
Use an iron catalyst, as a fine powder so it has the largest surface
area
...
The number of moles of
the 2NH3 is 2
...
Therefore the
best yield of the product of ammonia will occur at a high pressure,
but this is expensive and dangerous
...

5) Describe the 5 steps of the Häber Process (5):
-Nitrogen is taken from the fractional distillation of liquid air
...

-These gases react together at 450C, with a pressure of 200 atm
and using an iron catalyst
...

5) The unreacted gases are recycled and used again in the Häber
Process
...

-It is a colourless gas
...

-It is soluble in water
...
This solution is alkaline
...

nylon (for example parachutes)
...

fertiliser
...

2) Why is cracking an important process in the oil industry?
It produces shorter chain molecules
...

3) In paper chromatography, why should the water level be below the
dies?
To stop the dies from running into the water
...

5) What colours are the following solutions?
a) All metals except for copper and gold:
Grey
...

c) Chlorine:
Yellow gas
...

e) Iodine:
Grey solid
...

g) Iron (II) Hydroxide solution:
Green
...

i) Magnesium sulphate:
Colourless
...

k) Sodium Chloride:
Orange
...

m) Chlorine solution:
Green
...

o) Ammonium chloride:
White
...

q) Hydrogen chloride gas:
Colourless
...

7) What is meant by a displayed formula?
Shows all the bonds in the compound
...

9) What is needed for cracking?
Aluminium oxide (catalyst) and 600-700 degrees C
...

11) Describe how fractions are obtained
...
Different fractions will
vaporise at different temperatures
...
Lowest boiling points are the highest
ones up in the column and highest boiling points are at the bottom of
the column
...

13) What is the problem with using fertilisers in plants? (2)
Excessive use of fertilisers means that there is high nitrate content
in drinking water, which can be harmful and can also cause
eutrophication
...
They do this by providing
a pathway of lower activation energy so more particles have more
than the energy for a successful collision
...

16) What happens to the ammonia in the Häber Process when it is
produced?
It condenses from a gas into a liquid
...

18) What has to be drawn on the same level as the inks?
The base line has to be drawn in pencil (not in ink)
...

20) Describe the structure of rubidium chloride
...
The arrangement of the ions is a regular and
geometric structure called a crystal lattice
...
The structure therefore has
small molecules, which have not got a lot of attraction between them
...

22) Why is C60 a good lubricant?
It is a small sphere that can roll, so the sphere rolls over each other
making a good lubricant
...
The
ions can slip over each other so metals are malleable as the structure
is not disrupted
...

25) What is meant by the term relative atomic mass in carbon?
The mass of an atom compared to 1/12th of the C isotope
...
They also burn more cleanly than long chain
molecules
...

27) What kinds of compounds are bases?
Metal oxides
...

29) What does methane and bromine form?
Bromomethane
...

b) Häber process:
Iron catalyst
...

31) Name the two main solubility rules:
All nitrate compounds, all group-1 compounds and all ammonium
compounds are soluble
...

33) Write down the chemical equation for the halogenation of an
alkane
...

34) What has to be there in order for the halogenation of an alkane
to take place?
UV light
...

36) What percentage of each is there in air?
78
...
0% oxygen, 0
...
04% carbon dioxide
and small amounts of other noble gases
...

b) Phenolphthalein:
Pink
...

37) What colour do the following indicators go when the solution is
acidic?
a) Litmus:
Red
...

c) Methyl orange:
Red
...
They are just mixed
together and not chemically combined
...
Compounds are two ore more elements which are chemically
combined together
...

42) What are the 5 rules of solubility?
-All common sodium potassium and ammonium salts are soluble
...

-All common chlorides are soluble, except for silver chloride
...

-All common carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and
ammonium carbonate
...

44) What is poly(ethene) used for?
Plastic bottles and carrier bags
...

46) Why are addition polymers not very sustainable?
60

Because they hard to dispose of as their inertness mean that they
don’t easily biodegrade
...
This means they
don’t decompose easily
...

49) Draw an activation energy graph for an exothermic reaction

---