Notesale: Turn your study into money

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Terms

Adjectives and nouns

Adjectival noun – an adjective can sometimes function as a noun; the young, the rich
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Adjunct – an adjunct is part of a sentence and modifies the verb to show time, manner,
frequency, and degree; it is nearly done (nearly describing the degree to which the action has
been done)
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Adverb of manner – these modify verbs to describe the way the action is done; she did it
carefully (carefully describing the way the work was done)
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Adverb of time – these show when an action is done, the duration, or frequency; he did it
yesterday (when); they are permanently busy (duration); she never does it (frequency)
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Adverbs modifying adjectives – an adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes
the adjective, except enough which comes after; that’s really good; it was a terribly difficult time;
it wasn’t good enough
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Adverbs modifying nouns – adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place; the concert
tomorrow; the room upstairs
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Adverbs modifying determiners, numerals, and pronouns – adverbs such as nearly, almost,
hardly, about, etc
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Adverbial – an adverbial is a group of words that functions in the same way as an adverb;
before the play, we met up at the pub (before the pub functioning in the same way as an adverb
of time such as yesterday)
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Disjuncts – a disjunct expresses the speaker or writer’s attitude to what is being described in
the sentence; fortunately, we arrived on time (fortunately showing us the speaker was pleased
with the result)
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Possessive adjective – my, your, his, her, its, our, and their are possessive adjectives, used with
nouns, to show possession or ownership; that’s my folder
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Adjective (proper) – a proper adjective is one that is written with a capital letter
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However, in
Native Americans, Native is not derived from a proper noun, but is capitalised as the collective
words form the name of a group of people
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The is the definite article
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When
no article is used, this is referred to as the zero article
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Zero article – this is when a noun is used without a, an, or the; time is money
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Subject complement – he’s a surveyor (the subject is complemented by the complement to the
verb
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Object complement – she sent him the fax (the sentence is completed by telling us what she
sent to him)
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Prepositional complement – they talked about what needed doing (the sentence is completed
by the phrase linked to the verb by the preposition)
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Direct object – the direct object of a verb is created, affected or altered by the action of a verb,
or appreciated or sensed by the subject of the verb; she closed the door (door is directly affected
by her action)
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They made him dinner (dinner is the direct object as it is created by the
action, and him is the indirect object as the dinner is made for him)
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Conditionals

Apodosis – apodosis is the term for the main clause in a conditional sentence; if you tried it,
you’d probably love it (the apodosis is you’d probably love it and if you tried it is the protasis (if
clause))
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Conditional perfect – it is used in the third conditional to talk about imaginary situations in the
past; if she’d seen the advert, she would have applied for the job
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Second conditional – can be for future actions dependent on the result of another future action
or event where there is only a small possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied; if
I won the lottery, I’d stop working
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Third conditional – for imaginary past actions where the conditions for the action were not
satisfied; if you’d been there, you would’ve seen it
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, which connects words,
phrases, and clauses
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As such, it is not
part of the structure of the sentence in which it is used; however, things turned out much worse
than expected (however relates to what is said to contrast it with previous information about the
speaker’s expectations); all told, we did very well (all told connects information that has already
been given to produce a final conclusion that connects everything)
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For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so are the coordinating conjunctions in English, forming the mnemonic
FANBOYS
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Subordinating conjunctions include
although, as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where,
wherever
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These can also be written numerically as 1st, 2nd, 3rd…
Determiners – a determiner is used with a noun and restricts the meaning by limiting the
reference of the noun
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Direct and indirect speech

Direct speech – direct speech is used to give the exact words used by another speaker
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Indirect speech (reported speech) – this is used to communicate what someone else said, but
without using the exact words
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Discourse

Accommodation – this is when someone changes their speech when talking to someone
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If they make it less similar, this is
divergence
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S

Discourse analysis – this is the area of linguistics that is concerned with how we build up
meaning in the larger communicative, rather than grammatical, units; meaning in a text,
paragraph, conversation etc
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Discourse marker – a discourse marker is a word or phrase used in a conversation to signal
the speaker’s intention to mark a boundary; anyway, I’ll have to be going now (the function of
anyway is to signal a change in the direction of the conversation, in this case to finish it, so
anyway is a discourse marker here
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Phatic speech – phatic speech/phatic communication consists of words or phrases that have a
social function and are not meant literally
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Figure of speech

Anadiplosis – this is a rhetorical device where a word or phrase at the end of the sentence or
phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next sentence or phrase; here, we don’t accept failure
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Aphorism – this is a remark or sentence, often a definition, that conveys the truth about
something in a concise and witty way
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Asyndeton – asyndeton is a figure of speech where conjunctions are not used to connect
clauses
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Epanadiplosis – epanadiplosis is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning and end of
a phrase, clause or sentence; laugh with those that laugh, weep with those that weep
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Litotes – litotes are a kind of understatement, where the speaker or writer uses a negative of a
word ironically, to mean the opposite
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Tautology – tautology is where two near synonyms are placed consecutively or very close
together for effect; free gift; new innovation; lonely isolation
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Anaphora – words or phrases like pronouns are anaphora when they refer to something earlier
in the text; Helen needed the book and asked me to hurry up with it (it is anaphoric as it is
referring back to the noun book)
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Cleft sentences – a cleft sentence is one where the original clause is divided into two clauses;

• John took the money
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• It was the money that John took
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Deixis – words or phrases that can only be understood from the context of the text or utterance
where they are found are deictic; Tom’s interview was about to start and he was feeling nervous
about it (from the context, we know that he refers to Tom and that it refers to the interview)
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Relationships
between people; employer-employee; patient-doctor etc
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Major sentence – a major sentence is a full sentence, containing a main verb and a subject that
is either present or readily identifiable
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(Three is the minor sentence; it has no verb, but the listener will understand that the person
means I am leaving at three)
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Simple sentences – a simple sentence contains one subject and one main verb; it contains one
independent clause; I like coffee
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Dynamic modality – dynamic modality does not express the speaker’s opinion, nor does the
speaker affect the situation; he can speak perfect French (the speaker is describing a factual
situation about the subject of the sentence)
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Modal verbs – these are used to express ideas such as possibility, intention, obligation and
necessity; can, could, will, would, shall, should, ought to, dare, need etc
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Animate noun – nouns that refer people, animals, living beings etc
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Apposition – apposition is when a noun or noun phrase is placed next to another that explains
it; RS Thomas, the poet, died a few years ago (RS Thomas and the poet are in apposition; the
second phrase explaining the first, with the poet being the appositive)
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When a collective noun is used in the singular, the verb can either be
singular or plural; the company has decided to…; the company have decided to… however, police
has no singular form
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If a plural
verb is used, then the noun is seen as consisting of a group of individuals
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The
plural is normally made by the addition of the suffix ‘-s’; a horse/two horses
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Subject – the subject of a sentence is the noun, pronoun or noun phrase that precedes and
governs the main verb; he is a really nice guy (he is the subject, controlling the verb and the
complement); my dog attacked the burglar (my dog is the subject, controlling the verb and the
rest of the sentence)
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Interjections can be used to show emotion such as surprise or
shock
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Passive

Passive voice – the passive occurs in most aspects and tenses and changes the emphasis; my
roof was damaged by the storm (the damage to the roof is more important than the cause)
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Modern English does not use diacritics, though è is used in old poetry
to show that –ed is to be pronounced as a syllable
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Phonetics – this is the study of the sounds of the spoken language
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; piglet,
starlet, duckling
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Nouns in English can be changed to
show plurality; the third-person singular of most verbs is inflected by the addition of –s etc
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Suffix – suffixes are groups of letters placed after a word to modify its meaning or change it into
a different word class; gladly (-ly changes it from an adjective into an adverb); approached (-ed
changes the verb from the present into the past tense)
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Prepositions

Complex prepositions – a complex preposition is a group of words that functions as a single
preposition; in front of
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They can have a variety of meanings; he’s going to the shops (direction); it’s in the box (location);
he left after the lesson finished (time); the government of Italy (possession)
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They
also indicate whether they are replacing singular or plural words and give the location of the
object; this (singular and near the speaker); that (singular and far from the speaker); these
(plural and near the speaker); those (plural and far from the speaker)
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;
anyone can tell you; someone took it; nothing was done to help the victims; many tried, but few
succeeded
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First person – the person used when the subject is the speaker or the group with with them; I,
we
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Third person – used when the speaker is referring to an individual or thing that is outside the
conversation or communication
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Subject personal pronouns – I, you, he, she, it, we, and they are the subject personal pronouns
used in English
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Object personal pronouns – me, you, him, her, it, us and them are the object personal pronouns
used in English
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Possessive pronouns – mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours and theirs are the possessive pronouns
used in English to substitute a noun and to show possession or ownership; this is your disk and
that one is mine (mine substitutes the word disk to show possession)
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Reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves
are the reflexive pronouns used in English
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The reflexive pronoun can also be used to emphasise; I
did it myself (emphasises that I did it); they spoke to the Director himself (emphasising the
importance of the Director)
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Relative pronouns – relative pronouns such as that, who, which, whose and whom can be used
to introduce clauses in sentences; the woman who interviewed me was friendly; I can’t stand dogs
that bark loudly
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They can be a single word or phrase and are used with nouns
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Verbs and tenses

Active – verbs can be in either the active or passive voice
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In an active sentence, the person or thing that performed the
action is the subject of the verb; I wrote the letter
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Agent – the agent is the person or entity that performs the action described by a verb
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Copula verbs – a copula verb is a verb that connects the subject to the complement
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The principal copula verbs used to connect subject to complement are be,
look, feel, taste, smell, sound, seem, appear, get, become, grow, stay, keep, turn, prove, go, remain,
resemble, run and lie
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Future perfect (1) – for actions to be completed before a specific future time, but the exact
time is unimportant; she will have finished it by next week
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Future perfect continuous – this tense is used for actions that will be unfinished, but have
reached a certain stage; this time next month, I will have been living here for three years
(WILL + HAVE + BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE)
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Historic present – this is the use of the present tense when describing past events
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Inchoative verbs – an inchoative verb is a verb that describes a change of state; the apples
ripened; he has aged a lot
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Past perfect continuous – the past perfect continuous is used for actions that were unfinished
when another action took place; I had been living there for years before I got married (HAD +
BEEN + -ING)
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Past simple – the past simple tense is used for past actions that happened at a specific time,
which can either be given by a time phrase (yesterday, last week, last year etc
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Regular verbs add –ed to the base form, or –d if the verb ends with –e
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The verb form is the same for all persons; I
liked; you liked; she/he/it liked; we liked; they liked
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Present perfect (2) – for past actions when the time is not specified; have you ever been to
Rome?
Present perfect (3) – when a past action is relevant now; I’ve missed my flight; she’s broken her
leg and cannot go on holiday next week (HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE)
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It can also be used for actions that began in the past and are
still going on now (HAVE + BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE)
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It can also be used to talk about future arrangements (SIMPLE PRESENT OF TO BE +
-ING)
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Present simple (2) – for states; I like coffee
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Eggcorn – eggcorns are words or phrases that are used by mistake, usually because they are
homophones or sound similar to the original word(s)
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