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Final Study Guide – A
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Tissues are classified into four main categories:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body, lines the organs and cavities within the body
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The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice),
columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)
Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues
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It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
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Animal Nutrition
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Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and
accessory glands
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Ingestion is act of eating
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feeders (suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host-mosquitoes), Bulk feeders (eat relatively
large pieces of food-python)
Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb
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A) Mechanical digestion, includes chewing and increases the surface area of food
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Food passes through alimentary canal from mouth and passes through oral cavity (mechanical
digestion by teeth), esophagus (peristaltic movements), stomach (turns acidic due to HCl),
stomach, small intestine (duodenum, caecum and jejenum), large intestine (absorption of
water), rectum (undigested food is stored) and eliminated through anus
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Salivary amylase, initiating breakdown of glucose
polymers like starch
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The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chime
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Mucus
protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
The small intestine is the longest section of the alimentary canal
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The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum
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Other two parts, the jejunum and ileum function mainly in
absorption of nutrients and water
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Pancreatic secretions are
alkaline and neutralize the acidic chime
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It creates a brush border that greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption
The liver regulates nutrient distribution, interconverts many organic molecules, and detoxifies
many organic molecules
Absorption in the Large Intestine: The colon of the large intestine is connected to the small
intestine
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Feces, including undigested material and bacteria, become more solid as they move through the
colon
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The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals
called ruminants
Regulation of Energy Storage: The body stores energy-rich molecules that are not needed right
away for metabolism
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Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue, the most space-efficient storage
tissue

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Ventilation moves the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface
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The tracheal tubes supply O2 directly to body cells in Arthropods and Molluscs
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Every exhalation completely renews
the air in the lungs
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Epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea
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The maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity
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Respiratory pigment: Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin with copper as the
oxygen-binding component
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Normal pH of blood in Human is 7
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Circulation
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Circulatory systems can be open or closed
Blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system (insects, other arthropods and
molluscs)
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In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the
pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs
Mammalian Circulation: Blood begins its flow with the right ventricle pumping blood to the
lungs
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Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters
the heart at the left atrium and is pumped through the aorta to the body tissues by the left
ventricle
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The exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin
endothelial walls of the capillaries
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Osmoregulation
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Water moves by osmosis through a semi permeable membrane from low concentration to
high concentration
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They
balance water loss by drinking seawater and excreting salts
• Freshwater animals are hyperosmotic to pond water; they gain water and lose salt
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Animals excrete nitrogenous wastes in different forms:
ammonia, urea, or uric acid
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fishes)
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Birds, reptiles, insects and snails excrete uric acid in
the form of paste with little water loss
• Excretory systems vary among animal groups as follows
Protonephridia are found in Planaria
Metanephridia in Earthworms
Malpighian tubules in insects
Kidneys in Mammals
• Human Excretory system includes a pair of kidneys connected by ureter which connects to
urinary bladder which opens out through urethra
• Each kidney has an outer cortex and inner medulla, renal arteries and veins, renal pelvis
collects urine and joins ureter
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Bowman’s capsule consists of a ball of capillaries
called glomerulus where filtrate is formed and moves into the lumen of Bowman’s capsule
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The filtrate becomes increasingly concentrated in descending Limb of the loop of Henle
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Human Reproductive System
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Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary,
and gonads
• Male: The male gonad, testes consists of seminiferous tubules where sperm are
formed
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During
ejaculation, semen (sperms along with secretions of accessory glands) is propelled
through the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct, and then exits the penis
through the urethra
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Acrosome at the head
penetrates the egg
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Oogenesis is the process of development of egg
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There are two closely linked cycles
called menstrual cycle and ovarian cycle in females
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If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium (the inner lining of
uterus), it is shed in a process called menstruation
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The
resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis in a process called cleavage
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After blastocyst
formation, the embryo implants into the endometrium
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It is around nine months in
Human beings
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Meanwhile placenta is formed, by combination of maternal and
embryonic tissues
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It transports nutrients, respiratory
gases and wastes between fetus and the mother
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The mammary glands contain
small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk
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Twins: Splitting of the embryo during the first month of development results in
genetically identical twins
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Animal Development
• Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations, involves:
Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo and
Organogenesis, the formation of organs
• Gastrulation rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called a gastrula
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The ectoderm
forms the outer layer, skin and its derivatives later on
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The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm and forms organ
systems
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• Amniotes-embryos are surrounded by fluid in a sac called the amnion
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Mammals and reptiles including birds are
called amniotes for this reason
• The four extraembryonic membranes that form around the embryoA
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The amnion encloses the amniotic fluid
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The allantois disposes of waste products and contributes to gas exchange

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They are hollow and
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
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Myelin sheaths are
made by glia— oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
• Action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a process called
saltatory conduction
• The PNS has two efferent components: the motor system and the autonomic nervous system
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The autonomic nervous
system regulates smooth and cardiac muscles and is generally involuntary
• The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions
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The
parasympathetic system has antagonistic effects on target organs and promotes calming and a

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return to “rest and digest” functions
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The differences in
hemisphere function are called lateralization
Neural plasticity describes the ability of the nervous system to be modified after birth
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Sensory motor Mechanism
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