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Title: Biology AQA A2 Unit 4 Notes
Description: Notes with all the must know basics set out in a simple way.
Description: Notes with all the must know basics set out in a simple way.
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Ecology
the study of interrelationships between organisms and their environments
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Biotic
living components
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Ecosystems
the interacting abiotic and biotic features of a specific area
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Populations
all the organisms of one species in a habitat
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Niche
the adaptations to abiotic and biotic conditions which a species within a habitat occupy
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Quadrats
:
Random sampling
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Larger quadrats are used to measure larger species
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The greater the number of species, the greater number of quadrats should be used
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Line transects are used to show changes within plant and animal communities taking
place
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Abundance
of species are measured by:
Frequency
, the amount a particular species occurs within a quadrat
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Mark, release, recapture:
Estimate of population = (no
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caught in 2nd sample)
/ no
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The population has a definite boundary
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Marking method will not be lost
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Population growth curves:
Growth curves of populations usually have three main phases:
A period of slow growth as there is only a limited number of interbreeding species
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Population size begins to level off as there are now limiting factors on the population
growth
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Abiotic factors:
Temperature
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pH
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Biotic factors:
Intraspecific competition, competition between members of the same species
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Predation
Effects of predation:
Predators eat their prey, therefore reducing the prey’s population
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Increased competition due to less available food source, leading to decreased predator
competition
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Now that the prey population has increased, the predator population now increases as
there’s a greater amount of food available
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The development of manufacturing which lead to the industrial revolution
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Also influenced by immigration (moving in) and emigration (moving out)
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Social pressures
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Political factors
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Nutrition
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Medical care
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War
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Increasing population, has a wide base, showing a high birth rate
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Demographic transition:
Birth rate and death rate are high, population is low
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Birth rate also starts to decrease, population continues increasing
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Survival curves:
Shows the percentage of people still alive in a population after a given amount of time
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Both plants and animals break down organic molecules to make ATP
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It can take a variety of forms
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It cannot be created or destroyed
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Need for energy:
Metabolism
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Active transport
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Maintenance of body temperature
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ATP + H2O > ADP + Pi + Energy
(hydrolysis reaction)
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Advantages of ATP:
An immediate energy source
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The energy is more manageable due to the small quantities
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Oxidation and reduction:
Oxidation is loss of electrons, loss of H+ ions and gaining of oxygen
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Light dependant reaction:
Chlorophyll absorbs light energy
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These electrons are transferred along an electron transfer chain
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H+ also combines with NADP to form reduced NADP
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2H2O > 4H + O2 + 4e
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Light independent reaction (calvin cycle):
Requires ATP and reduced NADP from the light dependant reaction
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In the stroma, the CO2 combines with 5 carbon ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
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The ATP and reduced NADP are used to activate the GP to convert it into triose
phosphate (TP)
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Some TP molecules are converted into useful substances, like glucose
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Limiting factors:
The rate of photosynthesis is measured by volume of CO2 used up or O2 given off in a given
time
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The compensation point is the point where the amount of O2 used up in respiration is the same
as the amount of O2 given off in photosynthesis
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Carbon dioxide
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Respiration:
Glycolysis:
Occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
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The glucose is activated by phosphorylation, two molecules of ATP are used so that two
Pi molecules can bind to the 6 carbon glucose molecule to make it more reactive
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The triose phosphate molecule is oxidised, hydrogen is removed and combines with
NAD to produce reduced NAD
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The energy yield is four molecules of ATP, however two of these are used in the initial stage,
making the net gain two ATP
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Pyruvate + NAD + CoA > Acetyl CoA + reduced NAD + CO2
The krebs cycle:
2 carbon acetyl coA combines with a 4 carbon molecule
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This produces ATP from ADP and Pi as a result of substrate level phosphorylation
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The 4 carbon molecule is regenerated
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Reduced NAD and FAD are oxidised, releasing a proton and an electron
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The electrons are taken up by an electron carrier
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The electron from the reduced carrier is oxidised when passed to a new carrier, which
becomes reduced
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During this process the electron loses energy, which is used to synthesise ATP from
ADP and Pi
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At the end of the chain, the electrons combine with the protons as well as oxygen to form
water
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Anaerobic respiration:
In plants:
Pyruvate (3C) + reduced NAD > ethanol (2C) + CO2 (1C) + AND
Occurs mostly in waterlogged soils
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The lactate needs to be oxidised or taken to the liver to be stored as glycogen, otherwise
it could accumulate and cause fatigue
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Consumers
organisms which obtain their energy through feeding off other organisms
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Why plants do not take in all the energy available:
Over 90% of the sun’s energy is reflected back into space
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Light may not fall on the chlorophyll molecule
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Why not all energy is transferred between trophic levels:
Parts of the organism are not eaten
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Energy is lost via excretion
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Productivity:
Net production = gross production respiratory losses
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Calculating efficiency of energy transfers:
Available energy is usually measured as kjm2year1
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No account is taken for size
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No account for seasonal differences
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Varying amounts of water in an organism can make it unreliable
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No account for seasonal differences
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Collecting data can be complex
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Agricultural ecosystems:
Largely made up of animal/plants used to make food for humans
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To be maintained the climax community needs to be prevented
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Fossil fuels which power the machines on the farm
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Other species are removed to reduce competition
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Natural fertilisers
consist of dead or decaying organisms and animal waste
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How fertilisers increase productivity:
Nitrogen is needed to make proteins and DNA
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Effects of nitrogen fertilisers:
Reduced species diversity as nitrogen favours fast growing species
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Eutrophication
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The nitrates can then find their way into water courses
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High levels of nitrates in water can cause inefficient transport of oxygen to the brain
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Algae bloom occurs with algae covers the upper layers of the water
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Light becomes a limiting factor for plants at the bottom of the lake so they die
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The saprobiotic organisms now compete with fish for oxygen
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Saprobiotic organisms can now grow and break down more dead material to produce
nitrates
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Pests
an organism which competes with humans for resources
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An effective pesticide should:
Be specific
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Be cost effective
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Biological control:
Uses other organisms to control pests
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This would allow the pest to multiply
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Very specific
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Disadvantages of biological control:
Acts more slowly
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Integrated systems:
Uses all forms of pest control to determine the acceptable level of pest
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Managing the environment to ensure there’s a nearby habitat for predators
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Removing the pest by hand
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Using pesticides as a last resort
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Consumers eat plants and therefore take in carbon
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Saprobiotic organisms break down dead and decaying matter and respire to release
carbon dioxide
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The carbon from fossils is released through combustion
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Deforestation which removes photosynthetic organisms which can remove CO2
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The radiation that reaches the earth is absorbed and then re emitted back into space however
some of this radiation is absorbed by clouds and greenhouse gases that will reflect the radiation
back to earth
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Methane which is produced when organisms break down organic molecules
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Higher temperatures leading to crop failures
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The nitrogen cycle:
Ammonification:
Production of ammonia from organic ammonium containing compounds
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Nitrification:
A process which requires oxygen as it’s carried out by aerobically respiring denitrifying
bacteria
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Nitrogen fixation:
The process where nitrogen gas is converted into nitrogen containing compounds
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Mutualistic bacteria
require carbohydrates from the plant and in return they provide the
plant with amino acids
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These bacteria convert soil nitrates into gaseous nitrogen
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Primary succession
a slow process which occurs on barren land
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Adaptations of pioneer species:
A tolerance to hostile conditions (such as temperature fluctuation)
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The ability to photosynthesis
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Rapid germination of seeds
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They change the abiotic environment by dying and decomposing to form basic humus
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As succession occurs, the abiotic factors become less hostile and the variety of plant
species increase, providing a greater variety of habitats
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During this, new species move in and out complete previous species
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The species have established equilibrium
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Reasons for conservation:
Ethical
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Cultural and aesthetically pleasing
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Certain organisms present at earlier stages are no longer present in the climax community
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If the factor preventing succession is removed then succession will continue
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Phenotype
the observable characteristics of an organism
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Locus
the position of the gene on a chromosome
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Homozygous
if both alleles of a gene are the same
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Codominance
when both alleles are equally dominant so both are expressed in the
phenotype
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Gene pool
all the genes of the organisms in a population
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Representing genetic crosses:
Punnett squares are used to determine the possible genotypes of offspring as well as the
probability of these genotypes
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The organisms in pure breeding are homozygous
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Breeding two F1 generations will produce an F2 generation, where there will most likely
be a ratio of 1:2:1 (homozygous dominant:heterozygous:homozygous recessive)
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Sex linkage:
A gene on the X or Y chromosome is said to be sex linked
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This means that recessive alleles found on this portion of the X chromosome are more
likely to be expressed meaning that recessive phenotypes are more likely to be present
in men
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The HardyWeinberg principle:
p+q=1 (allelic frequency)
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HardyWeinberg assumptions:
No mutations
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No selective breeding
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Large population
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Despite there being too many offspring the populations stay the same
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Some individuals will contain certain alleles that give them a survival advantage
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Speciation:
Climate change can cause geographical isolation
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Further climate change could alter the conditions of the different regions
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Therefore the gene pools will differ over time
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Title: Biology AQA A2 Unit 4 Notes
Description: Notes with all the must know basics set out in a simple way.
Description: Notes with all the must know basics set out in a simple way.