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BBA-206 Marketing Research
Unit I
Introduction of Marketing Research: Define Marketing Research, Aims and Objectives of Marketing
Research
...

Research Design: Formulating the Research Problem, Choice of Research Design, Types of
Research Design, Sources of Experimental Errors
...
Scaling Techniques: The concept of Attitude, Difficulty of Attitude
Measurement, Types of Scales, Applications of Scaling in Marketing Research
...
Data Processing and Tabulation: Editing, Coding and Tabulation
...
Marketing research specifies the information
required to address these issues, designs the method for collecting information, manages and
implements the data collection process, analyzes the results, and communicates the findings and
their implications
...
The goal of marketing research is to identify and
assess how changing elements of the marketing mix impacts customer behavior
...


Aims And Objectives Of Marketing Research:
The aims of the marketing research and analysis may be stated as follows:
(1) To study the needs, wants and expectations of consumers
...

(3) To evaluate company’s sales promotion measures for suitable adjustment and improvement
...

(5) To suggest the introduction of new products, modifications of existing products and to discover
new uses of existing products
...

(8) To find out methods for making the products of the company popular and raising its goodwill
and market reputation
...

(10) To estimate potential buying-power in various areas
(11) To know the company’s expected share of the market
...

(13) To define the probable market for a specialized product and to report on general market
conditions and tendencies, buying habits, etc
...
Competitive Advantage
...


Businesses seeking advantage are exhorted to develop distinctive competencies at the lowest
delivered cost or to achieve differentiation through superior value
...
The methods can be broadly
classified as market-based and process-based assessment
...

2
...

•

Brand equity is defined as a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand that add to or
subtract from the value of a product or service to a company and/ or its customers
...


•

The assets and liabilities on which brand equity is based will differ from context to context
...
Customer satisfaction
...


•

This approach requires a sequential research design that uses the results from each research
phase to build and enhance the value of subsequent efforts
...
This issue must be addressed early in the system design
...
Total quality management
...


•

The power of measurements is clearly visible in applications of quality function deployment
(QFD), a japanese import used to make product design better reflect customer requirements
...
Marketing research plays a crucial role at this stage of the
process
...
Along the way, the team must develop a series of measures of several
different types
...
An MIS is, as will shortly be seen, more than
raw data or information suitable for the purposes of decision making
...
Moreover, as Kotler's1 definition
says, an MIS is more than a system of data collection or a set of information technologies:
"A marketing information system is a continuing and interacting structure of people,
equipment and procedures to gather, sort, analyse, evaluate, and distribute pertinent, timely
and accurate information for use by marketing decision makers to improve their marketing
planning, implementation, and control"
...
1 The marketing information systems and its subsystems

The explanation of this model of an MIS begins with a description of each of its four
main constituent parts: the internal reporting systems, marketing research system, marketing
intelligence system and marketing models
...

Internal reporting systems: All enterprises which have been in operation for any
period of time nave a wealth of information
...
That is, information is usually categorised
according to its nature so that there are, for example, financial, production, manpower,
marketing, stockholding and logistical data
...
Similarly, decision makers can fail to
appreciate how information from other functional areas might help them and therefore do
not request it
...
These are but a few of the internal records that
can be used by marketing managers, but even this small set of records is capable of
generating a great deal of information
...

•

Product type, size and pack type by territory
· Product type, size and pack type by type of account
· Product type, size and pack type by industry
· Product type, size and pack type by customer
· Average value and/or volume of sale by territory
· Average value and/or volume of sale by type of account
· Average value and/or volume of sale by industry
· Average value and/or volume of sale by sales person

By comparing orders received with invoices an enterprise can establish the extent to which it
is providing an acceptable level of customer service
...

Stages or Steps in Marketing Research Process
Marketing research exercise may take many forms but systematic enquiry is a feature common to all
such forms
...
Though it is not necessary that all research processes would
invariably follow a given sequence, yet marketing research aften follows a generalized pattern,
which can be broken down and studied as sequential stages stages
...
Identification and Defining of the Problem The market research process begins with the
identification of a problem faced by the company
...
Then, after some explanatory research, clear definition of the problem is of
crucial importance in marketing research because such research is a costly process involving time,
energy and money
...
It may be noted that the methods of explanatory
research popularly in use are : survey of secondary data, experience survey or pilot studies i
...

studies of a small initial sample
...


2
...
Such
objectives may be stated in qualitative or quantitative terms and expressed as research questions,
statement or hypothesis
...
“To find out the extent to which sales
promotion schemes affected the sales volume” is a research objective expressed as a statement
...

The same research objective could be stated, “To test the proposition that sales are positively
affected by the sales promotion schemes undertaken this winter
...
“The new packaging pattern has resulted in increase in sales and profit
...

3
...
A research design is a
master plan specifying the procedure for collecting and analyzing the needed information
...
The objectives of the study are included in
the research design to ensure that data collected are relevant to the objectives
...
g
...

4
...
Important questions in this regard are; who is to
be sampled as a rightly representative lot? Which is the target – population? What should be the
sample size – how large or how small? How to select the various units to make up the sample?
5
...
Hence,
methods of marketing research are essentially methods of data collection
...
e
...
Data can be primary i
...

collected from the original base through empirical research by means of various tools
...
(ii) External sources – outside the firm
...


Data

Processing

and

Analysis

Once data have been collected these have to be converted into a format that will suggest answer to

the initially identified and defined problem
...
Editing involves inspecting the data collection – forms for omission, legibility and
consistency in classification
...
The rules for categorizing, recording and transferring the data to “date storage media”
are called codes
...
If computer
analysis is being used the data can be key-product and verified
...


Formulating

Conclusions,

Preparing

and

Processing

the

Report

The final stage in the marketing research process is that of interpreting the information and drawing
conclusion for use in managerial decision
...
Often the management is not interested in details of
research design and statistical analysis but instead in the concrete findings of the research
...

Researchers must make the presentation technically accurate, understandable and useful
...
Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary
elements of a project
...
Some Gantt charts also show the dependency (i
...
precedence network)
relationships between activities
...

Although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gantt charts were considered
revolutionary when first introduced
...
This chart is also used in information technology to represent data that has been collected
A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for potential
limits of human memory and attention
...
A basic example is the "to do list
...


A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes
,
of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows
...
Process operations are represented in these boxes, and

...
Flowcharts are used in analyzing,
designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields
...

The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique commonly abbreviated PERT, is a
Project
Technique,
,
statistical tool, used in project management, that is designed to analyze and represent the tasks
,
involved in completing a given project
...

commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method (
(CPM)
...
Diversity: Varied cultures, age groups, gender, etc all add to the diversity of group which gives us
varied perspectives and enhances the kind of ideas the group can come up with
...
Varied experiences: There are difference in fields of experience and amount of experience and
there differences in the life experiences and the kind of experiences people have had even with the
same problem
...

3
...


4
...
Also those who may not have contributed still
support it as "the group" has come to this decision
...
Error detection: When there are many people working together, mistakes and errors that may have
accidentally gone unnoticed and had serious consequences are spotted by other team members
...
collective understanding: The members together come to a decision after much deliberation and
discussions and so everyone has a better understanding of the course of action to be followed
...
Less influence of bias: Individual biases can be challenged and individuals may have to recognize
and eliminate them
...
More creative solutions: With so many people involved, more creative and innovative solutions to
problems may emerge than an individual may have been able to develop
...
shared responsibility: There are a number of people involved, so no one person has to shoulder
the burden of work or of single-handedly making a decision
...
motivational effect: The group decision making may even have a motivational effect on the team
if the team is a successful one
...
Being a systematic process
...
The various stages or steps in the
marketing research process may be discussed as follows:
1
...
The clear cut statement of problem may not be
possible at the very outset of research process because often only the symptoms of the problems are
apparent at that stage
...
Clear definition of the problem helps the researcher in all subsequent research
efforts including setting of proper research objectives, the determination of the techniques to be used
and the extent of information to be collected
...
e
...
All this is also known as preliminary investigation
...
Statement of Research Objectives After identifying and defining the problem with or without
explanatory research, the researcher must make a formal statement of researcher objectives
...
For example, the research objective
...
On
the other hand, a hypothesis is a statement that can be refuted or supported by empirical findings
...
” Example of another hypothesis
may be
...
” Once the objective
or the hypothesis are developed, the researcher is ready to choose the research design
...
Planning the Research Design or Designing the Research Study After defining the research
problem and deciding the objectives, the research design must be developed
...
It
represents a framework for the research plan of action
...
At this stage, the
researcher should also determine the type of sources of information needed, the data collection
method (e
...
survey or interview), the sampling methodology and the timing and possible costs of
research
...
Planning the Sample Sampling involves procedures that use a small number of items or parts of
the population (total items) to take conclusion regarding the population
...
Data Collection The collection of data relates to the gathering of facts to be used in solving the
problem
...
Data can
be secondary, i
...
collected from concerned reports, magazines and other periodicals, especially
written articles, government publications, company publications, books etc
...
e
...
There can be
broadly two types of sources – (i) Internal sources – existing within the firm itself, such as
accounting data, salesmen’s reports etc
...


6
...
Data processing
begins with the editing of data and its coding
...
Before tabulation, responses need to
be classified into meaningful categories
...
This coding process facilities the manual or computer
tabulation
...

7
...
The research report should clearly and effectively communicate the research findings and
need not include complicated statement about the technical aspect of the study and research
methods
...
If need to the researcher may bring out his
appropriate recommendation or suggestions in the matter
...


Research Design

A research design encompasses the methodology and procedures employed to conduct scientific
research
...
g
...

Formulating a Research Problem

1
...
Dissect the broad area into sub-areas
3
...
Raise possible research questions
5
...
Assess your objectives
7
...
Then the intervention is carried out (the action in Action
Research) during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms
...
The protocol is iterative
or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and
evaluations

Case Study Design
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey
...
The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific
theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world
...

Causal Design
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements in the form, “If X, then Y
...
Most social scientists seek causal
explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses
...

Cross-Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension, a reliance on
existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on
existing differences rather than random allocation
...

As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relative passive approach to making causal
inferences based on findings
...
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of
the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may
affect the result of an experiment
...
Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship
(cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great
...
The independent variable is administered to the
experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same
dependent variable
...
True experiments must have control, randomization, and
manipulation
...
The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or
undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation
...
It uses secondary sources and a variety
of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and nontextual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]
...


Longitudinal Design
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations
...
Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish
the direction and magnitude of causal relationships
...
This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over
time
...


Observational Design
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in
cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment
...
In direct observations, people know that you are watching them
...
An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical
and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project
...
e
...
The sample size is not predetermined
...
This means the researcher can obtain a limitless number
of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept the null or alternative hypothesis
...
Using a qualitative framework, sequential
studies generally utilize samples of individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative
methods, such as interviews or observations, to gather information from each sample
...
Specify the Research Objectives
A clear statement of objectives will help you develop effective research
...
It’s critical that you have manageable objectives
...
)
2
...
This will help you determine
whether the findings of your project will produce enough information to be worth the cost
...

3
...
If you understand the nature of the problem as a researcher, you will
be able to better develop a solution for the problem
...

4
...

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern in the future
...


•

Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled
...


During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many courses of
action and variable relationships as possible
...
The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action
There are always consequences to any course of action
...


Sources of Experimental Error (Uncertainty)
1
...

- Simply put, usually due to ‘sloppiness
...
Determinate (Systematic) Error
- Uncertainty that is inherent in the measurement devices (hard to read scales, etc
...

- There are usually ways to determine or estimate
...

3
...

- May be result of operator bias, variation in experimental conditions, or other factors not easily
accounted for
...


Unit 2

Sampling
Signal sampling representation
...

In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete signal
...

A sample refers to a value or set of values at a point in time and/or space
...

A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples equivalent to the instantaneous value of the
continuous signal at the desired points
...
This arises from the heterogeneity of the population
Sometimes called a sampling plan Because of the heterogeneous nature of foods, replicate
Samples must be taken when estimating
Batch
A quantity of food that is known, or assumed, to be produced under uniform conditions Batch
numbers should always be noted when sampling foods
Unit
Each of the discrete, identifiable units of food that are suitable for removal from the population as
samples and that can be individually described, analyzed or combined These units form the basis of
most food analysis work (e
...
an apple, a bunch of bananas, a can of beans, a prepared dish)
Advantages and Limitation of Sampling
Advantages of sampling
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

Limitation of sampling
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...


Steps in Sampling Process
It is the procedure required right from defining a population to the actual selection of sample
elements
...

Step 1: Define the population

It is the aggregate of all the elements defined prior to selection of the sample
...

Step 2 : Identify the sampling frame
Identifying the sampling frame, which could be a telephone directory, a list of blocks and localities
of a city, a map or any other list consisting of all the sampling units
...
The sampling
unit may be different from the element
...
However, it is easier to select households
as the sampling unit and then interview housewives in each of the households
...
One of the most important decisions in this regard is
to determine which of the two—probability and non-probability sample—is to be chosen
...

Step 6: Specify the sampling plan

This means that one should indicate how decisions made so far are to be implemented
...
These
are some pertinent issues in a sampling survey to which a sampling plan should provide answers
...
A good deal of office and fieldwork is involved in the
actual selection of the sampling elements
...


Types of sampling
Probability Sampling:
Simple Random Sampling: A simple random sample (SRS) of size n is produced by a scheme
which ensures that each subgroup of the population of size n has an equal probability of being
chosen as the sample
...
There can be any number of
these
...
Combine those into the overall
sample
...
(Example: Church A has 600 women and 400 women as
members
...
)
Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and scattered for it to be practical to
make a list of the entire population from which to draw a SRS
...
Since voter lists are compiled by counties,
they might first do a sample of the counties and then sample within the selected counties
...
In some instances, they might use even more stages
...


Non-probability sampling schemes
These include voluntary response sampling, judgement sampling, convenience sampling, and maybe
others
...
They led to some memorable mistakes
...
The introductory statistics
books I usually teach from are Basic Practice of Statistics by David Moore, Freeman, and
Introduction to the Practice of Statistics by Moore and McCabe, also from Freeman
...
The detail is fascinating
...
Most of us like to talk about these! Someday when I have time,
maybe I'll write some of them here
...
That's about random variables
...
To create a sampling distribution of an
estimator for a sample size of 30, we must be able to consider all possible samples of size 30 and
base our analysis on how likely each individual result is
...
A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a
population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented
immigrants
...
For example, if a researcher wishes to
interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented
individuals that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those subjects to help locate
more undocumented individuals
...

Quota Sample
...
For example, if you a researcher conducting a national quota
sample, you might need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is

female as well as what proportions of each gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic
categories, educational categories, etc
...

Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that gives
all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected
...
The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in
statistical methods and computations
...
A set of random numbers is then generated and the units having
those numbers are included in the sample
...
First, each person is numbered
1 through 1,000
...

Systematic Sample
...
For
example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school and the researcher
wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into list form and then every 20th
student would be selected for inclusion in the sample
...
This is technically called a
systematic sample with a random start
...
A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher divided the
entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata
...
For example, to obtain a stratified
sample of university students, the researcher would first organize the population by college class
and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors
...

Cluster Sample
...
Usually, however, the
population elements are already grouped into subpopulations and lists of those subpopulations

already exist or can be created
...
There is no list of all church members in the country
...

Determining a Sample-Size
An appropriate sample size is based on a number of accuracy factors that you must consider
...
Determine Goals
2
...
Determine Confidence level
4
...
Estimate the Response Rate
Step One: Determine Goals
• First, know the size of the population with which you’re dealing
...
For a marginally higher cost than a 134-person sample, you can survey the entire
population and gain a 0% sampling error
...

• Second, decide the methods and design of the sample you’re going to draw and the specific
attributes or concepts you’re trying to measure
...
Once you have this information in-hand, you’re
ready to go on to the next step
...
The difference between the sample and the real population is called the sampling

error
...
For example, if the value in a survey says
that 65% of farmers use a particular pesticide, and the sampling error is ±3%, we know that in the
real-world population, between 62% and 68% are likely to use this pesticide
...
The level of precision you accept depends on balancing
accuracy and resources
...
The tables in Appendices 1 and 2 at the end of the
Tipsheet provide sample sizes for precision levels
of 5% and 3% respectively
...
A confidence level of 90% means that, were the
population sampled 100 times in the same manner, 90 of these samples would have the true
population value within the range of precision specified earlier, and 10 would be unrepresentative
samples
...
The tables at the end of this Tipsheet
assume a 95% confidence level
...
If the confidence level that is chosen is
too low, results will be “statistically insignificant”
...
A heterogeneous population, divided more or less 50%-50%
on
an attribute or a concept, will be harder to measure precisely than a homogeneous population,
divided say 80%-20%
...
To come up with an estimate of variability, simply take a reasonable guess of the size
of the smaller attribute or concept you’re trying to measure, rounding up if necessary
...
25 (which rounds up to 30% on the table provided at the end of this Tipsheet)
...
Note: when
the population is extremely heterogeneous (i
...
, greater than 90-10), a larger sample may be needed
for an accurate result, because the population with the minority attribute is so low
...

Step Five: Estimate the Response Rate
The base sample size is the number of responses you must get back when you conduct your
survey
...
To estimate
response rate that you are likely to get, you should take into consideration the method of your survey
and the population involved
...
You can also look at the rates of response that may
have occurred in similar, previous surveys
...

This section reviews some important properties of the sampling distribution of the mean, which
were introduced in the demonstrations in this chapter
...
Therefore, if a population has a mean µ, then the mean of the sampling
distribution of the mean is also µ
...
Therefore, the formula for the mean of the sampling distribution of the
mean can be written as:
µM = µ
VARIANCE
The variance of the sampling distribution of the mean is computed as follows:

That is, the variance of the sampling distribution of the mean is the population variance divided by
N, the sample size (the number of scores used to compute a mean)
...

(optional) This expression can be derived very easily from the variance sum law
...
The variance of the sum would be σ2 + σ2 + σ2
...
Since the mean is 1/N times the sum, the variance of the sampling
distribution of the mean would be 1/N2 times the variance of the sum, which equals σ2/N
...
It is therefore the square root of the variance of the sampling distribution of the mean and can
be written as:

The standard error is represented by a σ because it is a standard deviation
...

Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an attitude "a psychological tendency that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor
...
e
...

This definition of attitude allows for one's evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely
negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent
toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative
attitude toward the same object
...

Whether attitudes are explicit (i
...
, deliberately formed) versus implicit (i
...
, subconscious) has been
a topic of considerable research
...
Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different
ways
...
The
relationship between them is poorly understood
...
I will examine techniques for avoiding pitfalls associated with reliability and
validity, and point out why these can never overcome the classical problems of interpretation of
subjective
Types of scale
Pairwise comparison scale – a respondent is presented with two items at a time and asked to select
one (example : Do you prefer Pepsi or Coke?)
...
Krus and Kennedy (1977) elaborated the paired comparison
scaling within their domain-referenced model
...
Thurstone's Law of comparative
judgment can also be applied in such contexts
...
Respondents are subsequently also scaled based on their
responses to items given the item scale values
...

Rank-ordering – a respondent is presented with several items simultaneously and asked to rank
them (example : Rate the following advertisements from 1 to 10
...

Social distance scale – measures the degree to which a person is willing to associate with a class or
type of people
...
The results are
reduced to a single score on a scale
...

Q-Sort – Up to 140 items are sorted into groups based a rank-order procedure
...
It utilizes the intensity structure among several indicators of a given variable
...
The rating is scaled by summing all responses until the
first negative response in the list
...

Constant sum scale – a respondent is given a constant sum of money, script, credits, or points and
asked to allocate these to various items (example : If you had 100 Yen to spend on food products,
how much would you spend on product A, on product B, on product C, etc
...

Magnitude estimation scale – In a psychophysics procedure invented by S
...
Stevens people
simply assign numbers to the dimension of judgment
...
In cross-modality matching instead of
assigning numbers, people manipulate another dimension, such as loudness or brightness to match
the items
...

Non-comparative scaling techniques
Continuous rating scale (also called the graphic rating scale) – respondents rate items by placing a
mark on a line
...
There are sometimes a series of numbers,
called scale points, (say, from zero to 100) under the line
...

Likert scale – Respondents are asked to indicate the amount of agreement or disagreement (from
strongly agree to strongly disagree) on a five- to nine-point scale
...
This categorical scaling procedure can easily be extended to a magnitude
estimation procedure that uses the full scale of numbers rather than verbal categories
...
The same basic format is used for multiple
questions
...
Each attribute requires a scale with bipolar terminal labels
...
It ranges from +5 to −5 and has no neutral
zero point
...

Mathematically derived scale – Researchers infer respondents’ evaluations mathematically
...


Applications of scaling
1
...
Data mining
3
...
Information science,
5
...
Psychometrics,
7
...
Ecology
...
Common sources of secondary
data for social science include censuses, organisational records and data collected through
qualitative methodologies or qualitative research
...

Secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in
the case of quantitative data, provides larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible
for any individual researcher to collect on their own
...


Sources of secondary data
As is the case in primary research, secondary data can be obtained from two different research
strands:
•

Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other related
databases
...


A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already
been carried out, for example: literature reviews, case studies might have been carried out, published
texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts
have also been utilized
...


Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary
research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be compared
to
...


Primary Data:
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data
...
Primary data has not been
changed or altered by human beings, therefore its validity is greater than secondary data
...
A research can be conducted without secondary
data but a research based on only secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because
secondary data has already been manipulated by human beings
...
One such sources are old and secondly they contain limited information as well as
they can be misleading and biased
...
Validity is the quality of a research
that makes it trustworthy and scientific
...
Using primary data in research can improves the validity of research
...

Authenticity: Authenticity is the genuineness of the research
...
Primary research
tools and data can become more authentic if the methods chosen to analyze and interpret data are
valid and reasonably suitable for the data type
...
Primary source can be less authentic if the source hides information
or alters facts due to some personal reasons
...

Reliability: Reliability is the certainty that the research is enough true to be trusted on
...
This conclusion should have to be drawn from a sample whose size, sampling

technique and variability is not questionable
...
In the
similar research mentioned above if the researcher uses experimental method and questionnaires the
results will be highly reliable
...

Sources of Primary Data:
Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain data from primary
source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation
...
Following
are some of the sources of primary data
...
Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies, nutrition and for
other scientific studies
...

Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing and
psychology to some extent
...

•

Questionnaire: is the most commonly used method in survey
...

Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute,
through electronic mail or through fax and other methods
...
In interview the main
problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in depth
source of information
...
This enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily
...
Observations can also be made in natural settings
as well as in artificially created environment
...
Questionnaires can be handed out or sent by mail and later
collected or returned by stamped addressed envelope
...

Questionnaires may be used to collect regular or infrequent routine data, and data for specialised
studies
...
Some of the data often obtained
through questionnaires include demographic characteristics, fishing practices, opinions of
stakeholders on fisheries issues or management, general information on fishers and household food
budgets
...
Where multiple languages are common, questionnaires should be prepared using the major
languages of the target group
...

Questionnaires, like interviews, can contain either structured questions with blanks to be filled in,
multiple choice questions, or they can contain open-ended questions where the respondent is
encouraged to reply at length and choose their own focus to some extent
...
Structured
interviews are performed by using survey forms, whereas open interviews are notes taken while
talking with respondents
...

Open-ended interviews, which need to be interpreted and analysed even during the interview, have
to be carried out by well-trained observers and/or enumerators
...
Data on variables such as catch or effort
are potentially subject to large errors, due to poor estimates or intentional errors of sensitive
information
...


Focus groups are small (5-15 individuals) and composed of representative members of a group
whose beliefs, practises or opinions are sought
...

Panel surveys involve the random selection of a small number of representative individuals from a
group, who agree to be available over an extended period - often one to three years
...

Structured interview
Generally, structured interviews are conducted with a well-designed form already established
...

While this approach is more expensive, more complicated questions can be asked and data can be
validated as it is collected, improving data quality
...

Structured interviews form the basis for much of the data collection in small-scale fisheries
...
Enumerators can be mobile (that is
homeports are visited on a rotational basis) or resident at a specific sampling site
...

Direct observations
Observers
Observers can make direct measurements on the fishing vessels, at landing sites, processing plants,
or in markets
...
g
...
g
...

In practice, observers do not only make direct measurements (observations), but also conduct
interviews and surveys using questionnaires
...
The tasks of an observer are difficult and adequate training and supervision are therefore
essential
...
These
data if collected can be used to validate landing data
...
They may work at sea on surveillance vessels,
at landing sites on shore, at processing factories and at markets
...
Nevertheless, many
variables collected by the inspectors are very useful, and include landings, operational information,
effort, landing price, processing procedure and values of product to the market and processors
...

Inspectors may play an important role in verification
...
For example, random samples of boxes can be taken to check box
contents (species, product type and size grade) against box identification marks
...

As with enumerators/observers, inspector data should be treated with caution because of the high
chance of sampling bias
...

Scientific research
Ecological research methods can be undertaken independent of commercial fishing operations to
measure variables related to fish populations or the environment
...
The
objective is to obtain observations on biological (e
...
stock abundance or spatial distribution and fish
size, maturity and spawning activities) and environmental (e
...
salinity and temperature) variables
...

Similarly, socio-cultural research methods can be used to obtain specific information useful to
management
...

Key informants are individuals with specialised knowledge on a particular topic
...
Interviews are usually begun
with a set of baseline questions, but the interviewer expects to elicit new and perhaps unexpected
information by requesting that the key informant expand on his or her answers to these initial

questions
...

Participant-observation is a technique whereby the researcher spends an extended period of time
(from weeks to years, depending on the objective and the context) living with a target community,
both observing their behaviour and participating in their practices
...
This is a
good method for learning about the actual processes of decision-making, as opposed to the formal
procedures
...
However, information on these standards can often
only be obtained through participant-observation
...
They allow remote observation through recording of fishing activities
at sea, and could replace logbooks and observers/inspectors on the bridges of fishing vessels
...

Many data on fishing operations can be automatically recorded from bridge instrumentation
...
Once gathered, such data may be automatically transmitted to
databases through satellite or ground communications
...
Most commonly, these sources are data forms completed by the
fishing companies themselves, middle persons, market operators, processors and even trading
companies and custom offices
...

Fishing companies are often a good source of information regarding basic data on catches and
fishing effort
...
Data
submitted by companies are often in the form of logbooks or landings declarations
...
Landings declarations usually deal with grouped data presented as summaries of fishing
trips and catch by species
...
Confidentiality of information (such as fishing
grounds and catch rates) should be part of the agreement for data submission, and statistical outputs
of the survey should not contain information related to individual fishing vessels or companies
...

Harvest
The collection of data from all vessels within a fishery sector is sometimes needed usually from
large-scale fisheries
...
Because it is a painstaking task, usually only essential
data are required
...

Post harvest
Data from post harvest operations are often used for obtaining information on landings, biology,
markets, costs and earnings
...
Reports by the processors
generally include quantities and value of fish received and the resulting products
...

Monitoring off-loading catch in processed or whole round form requires considerable attention to
detail and much depends on the relationship between the fishery authority and vessel captains or
companies
...

Sale
Market transaction records may form a feasible way of collecting landings with complete
enumeration, particularly in large fleets of small-scale vessels that land in central locations
...
Given the potential volume of paper work, simplicity and
brevity will often be the most important criteria
...
Total weight by species or commercial group, and
price should be collected
...
These data are used in
socio-economic indicators and, in some exceptional cases, support landings data
...
It is particularly important where
export or import taxes are payable, or export incentives given
...
What are you trying to find out?
A good questionnaire is designed so that your results will tell you what you want to find out
...

2
...

Make sure you cover everything you will need when it come to analysing the answers
...
g
...
You can only do this if you’ve
remembered to record the gender of each respondent on each questionnaire
...
Telephone, Postal, Web, Face-to-Face?
There are many methods used to ask questions, and each has its good and bad points
...


4
...
g
...

5
...
In fact, quite often the shorter the better
...

If you are going to be asking your customers to answer your questionnaire in-store, make sure the
interview is no longer than 10 minutes maximum (this will be about 10 to 15 questions)
...
Read each question and ask, "How
am I going to use this information?" If you don’t know, don’t include it!
6
...

The questions must be clearly understood by the respondent
...
Do not use uncommon words or long sentences
...
Start with something general
...
g
...

8
...

Respondents sometimes only complete part of a questionnaire
...

9
...


If you are going to include questions which may require a long answer e
...
ask someone why they
do a particular thing, then make sure you leave enough room to write in the possible answers
...
Test your questionnaire on your colleagues
...
Complete some interviews with your colleagues BEFORE you ask the real
respondents
...


Data Processing and Tabulation:
EDITING: The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed questionnaires for
omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying them for coding and storage
...
For completeness in responses–
to reduce effects of item non-response
...
To
facilitate the coding process
...
Field Editing Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the same day as the
interview to catch technical omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are
logically or conceptually inconsistent
...
Editing performed by a central office staff; often done more rigorously than field editing
...
The numerical score or symbol is called a code, and serves as a rule for
interpreting, classifying, and recording data
...

TABULATION Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form (i
...
, in the form of statistical table) for further analysis When mass data has been

assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise
logical order, which may be called tabulation
...
It simplifies complex data
...
It facilitates comparison
...
It facilitates computation
...
It presents facts in minimum possible space
...
Tabulated data are good for references and they make it easier to present the information in the
form of graphs and diagrams
...
Population Characteristics are things like “ The mean of a population” or “
the proportion of the population who have a particular property”
...


Definitions H0:
The Null Hypothesis This is the hypothesis or claim that is initially assumed to be true
...

Type I error
A type I error, also known as an error of the first kind, occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is
true, but is rejected
...
A type I error may be
compared with a so-called false positive (a result that indicates that a given condition is present
when it actually is not present) in tests where a single condition is tested for
...
A Type I error occurs when we believe a
falsehood
...


The rate of the type I error is called the size of the test and denoted by the Greek letter α (alpha)
...
In the case of a simple null hypothesis α is the
probability of a type I error
...

False positive error
A false positive error, commonly called a "false alarm" is a result that indicates a given condition
has been fulfilled, when it actually has not been fulfilled
...
The shepherd wrongly indicated there was one, by calling "Wolf, wolf!"
...

Type II error[edit]
A type II error, also known as an error of the second kind, occurs when the null hypothesis is
false, but erroneously fails to be rejected
...
A type II
error may be compared with a so-called false negative (where an actual 'hit' was disregarded by the
test and seen as a 'miss') in a test checking for a single condition with a definitive result of true or
false
...
[4] In terms of folk tales, an
investigator may fail to see the wolf ("failing to raise an alarm")
...

The rate of the type II error is denoted by the Greek letter β (beta) and related to the power of a test
(which equals 1-β)
...
Negation of the
null hypothesis causes type I and type II errors to switch roles
...
A statistical test can either
reject (prove false) or fail to reject (fail to prove false) a null hypothesis, but never prove it true (i
...
,
failing to reject a null hypothesis does not prove it true)
...
A common example is a guilty prisoner freed from jail
...
But the test failed to realize this, and
wrongly decided the prisoner was not guilty
...

Example
As it is conjectured that adding fluoride to toothpaste protects against cavities, the null hypothesis of
no effect is tested
...
e
...

A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is false (i
...
, adding fluoride is actually effective
against cavities), but the data are such that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, failing to prove
the existing effect
...

Tabularised relations between truth/falseness of the null hypothesis and outcomes of the test:
Null hypothesis (H0) is true Null hypothesis (H0) is false
Reject null hypothesis

Fail to reject null hypothesis

Type I error

Correct outcome

False positive

True positive

Correct outcome

Type II error

True negative

False negative

Measurement ofCentral Tendency

Converting Data to Information: The goal of a six sigma project is not to produce an
overwhelming amount of data that ends up intimidating the concerned people
...
However for that one needs to
learn how to statistically deal with huge amounts of data
...

Data tends to be centred around a point known as average
...
It is for this
reason that we use the following characteristics to make sense of the data involved:
Measures of Central Tendency: Different types of data need different measures of central
tendency
...
It could also be the geometric or harmonic mean however that is unusual
...
Many statistical techniques have evolved that
use the mean as the primary measure to understand the centrality of a given set of data
points
...
In case where data sets have
an odd number of elements like 7, the median is the 4th item because it has 3 data points on
each side
...
Median is used where there are outliers i
...
big numbers that impact the mean
giving a false picture of the data involved
...
This is the
value of the most expected number to occur
...

Common measures of dispersion are as follows:
Range: The two endpoints between which all the values of a data set fall is called a range
...

Quartiles: The data set is divided into 4 sets and the number of elements is each set is
studied to give us data about quartiles
...
However quartiles remain most widely used
...
However standard deviation is like the mean, it is the most important measure of
dispersion and is used exhaustively in almost every statistical technique
...
The analysis is carried
out with the description of a single variable in terms of the applicable unit of analysis
...

Univariate analysis contrasts with bivariate analysis – the analysis of two variables simultaneously –
or multivariate analysis – the analysis of multiple variables simultaneously
...

Methods
A basic way of presenting univariate data is to create a frequency distribution of the individual
cases, which involves presenting the number of cases in the sample that fall into each category of
values of the variable
...
A sample distribution table is presented below, showing the frequency
distribution for a variable "age"
...
This involves describing the way in which quantitative data tend to
cluster around some value
...
For a categorical variable, such as
preferred brand of cereal, only the mode can serve this purpose
...

Another set of measures used in univariate analysis, complementing the study of the central
tendency, involves statistical dispersion
...
The most common dispersion measures are the range, interquartile
range, and the standard deviation
...

In the case of time series, which can be ordered along a time scale, univariate analysis can also
involve time series analysis such as autoregression, moving average, autoregressive moving
average, or autoregressive integrated moving average models
...


Multiple Regression Analysis using SPSS

Introduction
Multiple regression is an extension of simple linear regression
...
The variable we want to
predict is called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome, target or criterion variable)
...

For example, you could use multiple regression to understand whether exam performance can be
predicted based on revision time, test anxiety, lecture attendence, and gender
...
In our example this would be the correlation between the levels of job satisfaction reported
by our participants and the levels predicted for them by our predictor variables
...
In
essence, this is a measure of how good a prediction of the criterion variable we can make by
knowing the predictor variables
...
This Adjusted R Square value gives the most useful measure of the success of
our model
...
75 we can say that our model
has accounted for 75% of the variance in the criterion variable
...
Previous research has
shown that age of acquisition has an effect on children’s reading and also on object naming
...
Word length and age of
acquisition emerged as significant predictors of whether the word waslikely to be spelt correctly
...
In other
words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables mainly reflect
the variations in fewer unobserved variables
...
The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations
of the potential factors, plus "error" terms
...

Computationally this technique is equivalent to low rank approximation of the matrix of observed
variables
...

Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis (PCA), but the two are not identical
...
There has been

significant controversy in the field over the equivalence or otherwise of the two techniques (see
exploratory factor analysis versus principal components analysis)

Cluster analysis (in marketing)
Cluster analysis is a class of statistical techniques that can be applied to data that exhibit “natural”
groupings
...
A cluster is a
group of relatively homogeneous cases or observations
...


Examples
The diagram below illustrates the results of a survey that studied drinkers’ perceptions of spirits
(alcohol)
...
The research indicates there are
four clusters in this market
...
In more complex cluster
analyses you may have more than that number
...
Recent research has identified three clusters or
market segments
...

Cluster analysis, like factor analysis and multi-dimensional scaling, is an interdependence
technique: it makes no distinction between dependent and independent variables
...
It is similar to multi-dimensional scaling in that both
examine inter-object similarity by examining the complete set of interdependent relationships
...
Cluster analysis is the obverse of factor analysis
...


Multidimensional Scaling
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a series of techniques that helps the analyst to identify key
dimensions underlying respondents’ evaluations of objects
...

Once the data is in hand, multidimensional scaling can help determine:
• what dimensions respondents use when evaluating objects
• how many dimensions they may use in a particular situation
• the relative importance of each dimension, and
• how the objects are related perceptually

The purpose of MDS is to transform consumer judgments of similarity or preference (eg
...
The resulting perceptual
maps show the relative positioning of all objects
...
Any object (product, service, image, etc
...
For example, a firm may see their new model of lawnmower as
having two color options (red versus green) and a 24-inch blade
...
Customers may or may not see theseattributes
...


Objectives Of Multidimensional Scaling
1
...
As a means of obtaining comparative evaluations of objects
when the specific bases of comparison are unknown or
undefinable
...

The objective of conjoint analysis is to determine what combination of a limited number of
attributes is most influential on respondent choice or decision making
...
These implicit valuations (utilities or part-worths) can be used to create market
models that estimate market share, revenue and even profitability of new designs
...
It can be
defined as communication in which a person, who is assigned the work of report making, gives
information to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so
...


Types of Reports

Types of Reports : Reports can be classified as follows :
(1) Formal and Informal Repots
(2) Routine and special Reports
(3) Oral and written reports
(4) Informational and Analytical
Reports

Formal Report

Informal Report

A formal report is prepared in a

An informal report is generally in the

prescribed form
...


hundred pages
...


Annual Reports, reports of

Laboratory reports, daily production

companies, project reports and thesis

reports, trip reports are informal

are examples of formal reports
...


Routine Report

Special Report

Routine reports are prepared and

Special reports is prepared and

presented at regular intervals
...


weekly and daily
...


thesis, dissertation are special reports
...


Reports of accidents, sales production, They can be kept as permanent
joining are example of oral reports
...


Informational Reports

Analytical Reports

It is presentation of data/information

It is presentation of data/information

without any analysis or interpretation

with analysis or interpretation or

or recommendations
...


Conference report, seminar report

Project reports, Feasibility reports,

and trip report are example
...


Guidelines for report writing

1
...
Because it

determines the kind of report you write, it's a critical (and often neglected) first step
...
Are you writing a factual, instructional or leading report? Remember:
•

Factual reports aim to inform
...


•

Leading reports aim to persuade
...
This starting point gives
you vital focus, and drives absolutely everything else
...
Know your readers

Before you start writing your report, consider its audience
...
In short, to be successful, a report must ensure that
its target readers can:
•

Read it without delay;

•

Understand everything in it without much effort;

•

Accept its facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations; and

•

Decide to take the action recommended
...
Know your objective

By matching the purpose to the reader, you are ready to set your objective
...
'Do this
...
Choose an approach

I recommend a top-down approach to writing a report
...

•

Thesis - the thesis of a report is a guiding statement used to define the scope of the
research or investigation
...


•

Info-gathering - there are a number of questions to ask at this stage:
o
o

How much do I need?

o

Where will I find it?

o
•

What information do I need?

How will I collect it?

Refinement - there are three stages in the refinement process; namely:
o

Write the section-level outline
...


o

Write the paragraph-level outline
...
It incorporates
the flow of ideas
...
Like I said, hardly rocket
science
...

5
...
I'm not a masochist, so this structure does not
need to be rigidly adhered to
...

1
...
Index (or Contents)
3
...
Introduction (or Executive Summary)
5
...
Procedure
7
...
Solutions (or Recommendations)
9
...
Appendices
11
...
Use the right style

Use hard facts and figures, evidence and justification
...
The best reports are simple and quick to read because the writer has
interpreted the data and developed viable recommendations
...
Write as you speak
...
Avoid empty words
...
Use descending order of importance
...
Use the active voice
...
Keep sentences short
...
Don't try to impress; write to express
...
Get facts 100% right
...
Be unbiased and open
...
Consider layout
•

Fonts

Remember that reports are conservative and often formal documents, so your font choices
should not be cutesy, clever or sexy
...
You can use a sans serif
font such as Arial or Calibri for bolded headings to complement the body text
...
Wherever necessary, explain all aspects of a visual
and don't leave the reader wondering about the connection between the figure and the text
...
(Bar graphs,
pie charts and tables do different things, for example
...
Leave time to refine

No report is perfect, and definitely not when it's still Draft 1
...
Leave as much time as you can afford to check, check and
double-check, and then ask yourself:
1
...
Does it do what I was asked to do?
3
...
And bottom line: Am I pleased with it?

Evaluation of a Research Report
•

TITLE [in a memorandum, the subject]

•

ABSTRACT [in a memorandum, the first paragraph]

•

1
...
1 Background

•

1
...
3 Previous related work

•

2
...
1 Hypothesis or hypotheses

•

2
...
3 Assumptions

•

3
...
1 What are the data that were used?

•

3
...
3 How were they analyzed?

•

4
...
CONCLUSIONS

•

6
...
SUMMARY AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

•

APPENDIX OR APPENDICES

References;

Text Book:

1
...
L
...
Beri, G
...
,) Marketing Research: Research Design, McGraw Hill Education
...
Malhotra, Naresh,), Marketing Research, Pearson education
...
Nargundkar, Rajendra Marketing Research, McGraw Hill Education
...
www
...
org

2
...
nyu
...
www
...
com
4
...
emathzone
...
www
...
net



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