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Psychology
Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
The need for psychological science: Why Do We Need Psychological
Science?
! Hindsight bias and Judgmental overconfidence show that we can’t just rely on
common sense and intuition
...

•

The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense: What are the limits of Intuition
and Common Sense?
! Intuition and common sense are encouraged more than a scientific approach
because it’s easier for humans to think they have it under control of their own
intuition
...
Intuition can lead us astray according to Madeleine
L’engle
...
Also
known as the “I-knew –it-all-along phenomenon
...
This is
why we need psychological research, because common sense is not enough
...
Prediction is difficult
...
” Common-sense ideas are wrong, wrong, and
wrong
...
Anagram: WREAT, ETRYN, GRABE
...
The answers are water, entry, and barge
...
But scientific inquiry, fed by curious skepticism and by humility,
can help us sift reality through illusions
...
Scientific inquiry refutes
skeptics
...
So pretty much, science and research debunks
bogus claims and religious claims
...
Attitudes of curiosity, skepticism, and humility helped make
modern science possible
...
To be accurate, scientific attitude says we should have
other scientists check results
...
Scientific inquiry lead to surprising discoveries
...
Theory is linked with observation
and explains through and integrated set of principles that organizes and
predicts behaviors or events
...
Operational
definition: how to record/collect data
...
Description
-Starting point of science: We all observe/describe people and draw conclusions about
why they do what they do
...

A
...
” Helped psychologist with early knowledge of brain when one section was
destroyed, find out about children’s thinking, and apes’ ability to understand language
...
info and mistaken judgment
...
Individual cases can cause fruitful
...
The Survey: What is a survey and how is it helpful to psychologists?
-Survey looks at cases in depth (report behavior/opinions
...
The answers depend on the wording of the
questions/choice of respondents
...
censorship, but 66% approved more restrictions on what is shown
on television
...
“Because wording is such a delicate matter,
critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might have affected the
opinions respondents expressed
...
The tendency
to overestimate others’ agreement with us is the false consensus effect (ross & others,
1997)
...

The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample of cases
...
Random sample is one in
which every person in the entire group has an equal chance of participating
...
Random
sample works in national survey
...
Naturalistic Observation: What is it and why is it helpful to psychologists?
- watching and recording the behavior of organisms in their natural environment
...
But those descriptions can be revealing: Jane Goodall
and the chimps and baboons
...


Thinking Critically with Psychological Science pages30-36
III
...
Correlation coefficient = stat
...
(how close 2 things vary together and how well either one
predicts the other
...
Positive correlation = 2
sets of scores (height and weight) tend to rise/fall together
...
Weak correlation = little or no relationship and has a coefficient near zero
...
If we fail to see a relationship when data are
presented systematically (like a table) how are we likely to notice them in everyday life?
We can easily see evidence of gender discrimination when given stat info
...
Correlations leave most of the
variation among individuals unpredicted
...

A
...
Correlation
does not prove causation
...
There can be other
factors that lead to a cause that aren’t included in the recorded information
...
It could be brain chemistry that causes it, or heredity
...

B
...
When we believe there is
a relationship between 2 things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm
our beliefs according to Trolier and Hamilton 1986
...
Explains why people believe that sugar makes kids hyperactive, getting cold/wet
makes one catch a cold, and weather changes trigger arthritis pain
...

C
...
Usually we find patterns because random sequences often don’t look random
...
Some happenings
seem so extraordinary that we struggle to conceive an ordinary, chance-related
explanation
...
)

Neuroscience and Behavior
Pages 53-61
-Explain why psychologists are concerned with human biology, and describe the illfated phrenology theory
...
Without your body- your genes,
brain, appearance- you are nobody
...
The brain, its component neural systems, and their genetic
instructions
...
Aristotle- located mind in heart which pumps
warmth and vitality to body
...
Phrenology: popular/illfated theory claims bumps on skull could reveal mental abilities and character traits
...
It was bogus
...
In last century: nerve cells conduct
electricity and communicate through chemical messages and that processed in different
brain systems
...
Biological
psychologists are gaining a better understanding of sleep/dreams
depression/schizophrenia/hunger/sex/stress/disease
...

I
...
We are biopsychosocial
systems (cells into organs into humans into communities
...
Information
systems of humans and other animals operate so similarly that one couldn’t distinguish
the difference between small samples of brain tissue of a monkey and a human
...
Like cars
...
)
Same principles are followed
...
Neurons: What are the different parts and what do they do?
-Neuron= a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
...
The axon fibers pass the message along to other
neurons or to muscles or glands
...
Dendrites listen
...
Motor neurons control muscles and are huge
...

-Neural impulse speed ranges from 2 mph to 200 mph plus
...
Brain=milliseconds and computer= nanoseconds
...
--Neuron fires impulse when receives signals from sense receptors simulated by pressure,
heat, or light, or chemical messages from neighboring neurons
...
Neurons
generate electricity from chemicals
...
Fluid interior of resting axon has excess
of - ions while fluid outside axon has + ions
...
Axon’s surface is selective of what it allows in (blocks positive
sodium ions
...
The resting pause is called the refractory
period in which the neuron pumps the + ions back outside, then it can fire again
...
Some signals are excitatory (like an accelerator
...
) excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceed a
minimum intensity called the threshold (the combined signals trigger an action potential
...
Neuron’s
reaction = all or none response
...

B
...
Sherrington called this the synapse, and the gap is called the
synaptic gap or cleft
...

-When the action potential reaches the knoblike terminals at the axon’s end, it triggers the
release of chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters
...
It unlocks it, and the ions enter the receiving neuron, which causes readiness to
fire
...

C
...
Acetylcholine (Ach) is the most
understood
...
Messenger @ every junction between motor
neuron and skeletal muscle
...
If blocked, then they can’t
...
) Radioactive tracer to morphine showed where it
was taken up in animal’s brain
...

-Brain has own neurotransmitters like morphine, called endorphins, which are natural
opiates released when one is in pain and vigorous exercise like “runner’s high” or
acupuncture
...
Dopamine influences
movement, learning, attention, and emotion
...
Norepinephrine helps control alertness and arousal
...
Glutamate is a major
excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory
...
When they stop using drugs, they are without any opiates for awhile until
their body can resume making them on it’s own
...
Some opiates produce a temporary high by amplifying
normal sensations of arousal or pleasure
...

-Antagonists can be drug molecules that inhibit a neurotransmitter’s release, like Botulin,
which forms in poorly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh release, also used
in Botox
...
Curare is a poison applied to darts
that blocks ACh receptors, leaving animal paralyzed
...
A blood-brain barrier enables the brain to fence
out unwanted chemicals circulating in the blood
...
L-dopa can and doctors use it to help patients regain better muscular
control
...
The Nervous System: What is it and how does it work?
- Neurons are the basic components of our nervous system, our body’s speedy
electrochemical information network
...
PNS= Peripheral Nervous System –links the CNS with the body’s sense receptors,
muscles, and glands
...
Info travels in nervous system through 3 types of neurons: Sensory neurons (send
info from body tissue and sensory organs to the CNS which process info
...
) Interneurons (between
sensory input and motor output, info is processed by the CNS’s internal communication
through these
...

I: Nervous system

A) Peripheral B) Central (Brain and spinal cord)

1a
...
)

2a
...


--1a1
...
Parasympathetic (calming)

A
...
Somatic enables voluntary control of
skeletal muscles
...
Autonomic nervous system is made up of sympathetic nervous system
which arouses, and the parasympathetic nervous system which calms you
...
The Central Nervous System: What is it and how does it work?
- CNS enables our humanity in tens of billions of neurons
...
The Spinal Cord and Reflexes
-CNS Spinal cord is info highway connecting the PNS to the brain
...

- Neural pathways govern our reflexes (responses to stimuli illustrate cord’s work
...

-pain reflex enabled by sensory neurons to interneurons in spinal cord which
respond by activating motor neurons to muscles in place being hurt
...

To produce bodily pain or pleasure, the sensory information must reach the brain
...
The Brain and Neural Networks: What is a neural network?
- Brain receives info, interprets it, and decides responses like a computing machine
...
They communicate
through short fast connections
...



D
...
Hormones originate in one tissue, travel through the bloodstream, and
affect other tissues including the brain, and influence interest in sex, food, and
aggression
...
Both the endocrine and nervous
systems secrete molecules that activate receptors elsewhere
...
However, the
effects of the endocrine message outlast the effects of the neural message
...
They try to keep
things in balance
...

-Pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland in the core of the brain controlled by the
hypothalamus, and releases hormones that influence growth and also influence the
release of hormones by other endocrine glands
...

- Brain " pituitary " other glands " hormones" brain
...
The nervous system
directs the endocrine secretions which affect the nervous system, and the
distinction between the 2 systems sometimes blur
...
Discovered that
neurotransmitters can drift in brain fluid to nerve receptors at distant sites, thereby
affecting overall alertness or mood, in which the distinction between
neurotransmitters and hormones isn’t clear
...























Neuroscience and Behavior: pages 68-74

E
...


1
...
First recorded 5000 years ago
...
Some damage
causes numbness or paralysis on opposite side, suggesting the right brain controls
the left side and vice versa
...
1500 brain-injured patients have been assembled by U of Iowa into a brain
damage registry
...
These provide clues to our brains’ inner
workings
...
Manipulating the Brain
- Electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate various parts of the brain and
note the effects
...


3
...
The tips of modern microelectrodes can
detect pulse in a single neuron, and where information goes
...


4
...
) Active neurons
absorb the most glucose
...
They show that the brain
areas light up when saying certain names of animals and different parts of the brain
light up when one says a name of a tool
...

- MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans the head’s strong magnetic field which
aligns the spinning atoms
...
MRI reveal enlarged fluid filled brain
areas in patients with schizophrenia
...
Shows how brain
divides labor
...


F
...



1
...
Begins where
spinal cord enters the skull and swells slightly, forming the medulla
...
The pons helps coordinate movements
...

-The reticular formation is a finger-shaped network of neurons that extends from
the spinal cord right up to the thalamus inside the brainstem between your ears
...

-electrically stimulating the reticular formation of a sleeping cat almost instantly
produced and awake alert animal
...

-The reticular formation is involved in arousal, and neurons in brainstem whose
activity is needed for sleep
...
The Thalamus
-The brain’s sensory switchboard that looks like a joined pair of egg-shaped
structures
...
The thalamus receives some of
the higher brain replies, which it directs to the medulla and cerebellum
...
The Cerebellum
-baseball-sized cerebellum is located at the rear of the brainstem
...
It enables one type of nonverbal
learning and memory
...
It processes sensory info, coordinates voluntary
movement
...


4
...
The hippocampus in it processes memory
...

! The amygdala: lima been-sized neural clusters influence aggression and
fear
...
If you electrically stimulate it
and we would prepare for attack
...
The hypothalamus both monitors brain chemistry and
takes orders from other parts of the brain
...
) Animals come
equipped with built-in systems that reward activities essential to
survival
...

Reward deficiency syndrome- a genetically disposed deficiency in the

natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to
crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative
feelings
...













































Neuroscience and Behavior: pages 75-83

G
...
It’s your body’s ultimate control
and information-processing center
...
Larger cortex enables a more adaptable
animal and increased capacities for learning and thinking
...
Structure of the Cortex
- the cerebral cortex contains 20-23 billion nerve cells, supported by 9 times as
many spidery glial cells (glue cells ) that guide neural connections, provide nutrients
and insulating myelin and mop up ions and neurotransmitters
...
A greater concentration of glia is good
...
The frontal lope behind your forehead, the
parietal lopes at the top and to the rear, the occipital lobes in the back of your head,
and the temporal lobes carry out many functions
...
Functions of the Cortex
- It is easy to err when trying to localize brain functions
...
)

3
...
They could make different body parts move
...
Also
discovering that the right brain controls the left side and the left brain controls the
right side
...
They stimulated different
cortical areas and noted the body responses
...
They could map the motor cortex according to
the reaction of what moved where
...
The first patient can mentally control a
television, draw shapes on a computer screen, and play video games because
of the chip with 100 microelectrodes recording activity in his motor cortex
...
Sensory Functions
-The cortex receives messages from the sensory cortex, the area in front of the
parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
...
Lips project to a larger brain area than toes
...
They receive sight and sound
...
Association Areas

- small areas of the cortex either receive sensory input or direct muscular output
...
4 of the cerebral cortex us uncommitted to sensory or muscular activity
...
Electrically probing doesn’t trigger any observable
response so we can’t specify functions of the association areas
...
In the frontal lobes we are able to judge, plan, and
process new memories
...
Language
- aphasia in impaired use of language caused by damage to several cortical areas
...
Others can comprehend what they read but
cannot speak
...
Apparently they all use different parts of the brain
...

Complex abilities result from the intricate coordination of many brain areas
...
Your brain breaks vision into
specialized subtasks like discerning color, depth, movement, and form
...
What you experience as a
continuous indivisible stream of perception is actually but the visible tip of the info
processing iceberg, most of which lies beneath the surface of your conscious
awareness
...


7
...
Severed
neurons don’t regenerate
...

Neural tissue can reorganize in response to damage
...
Our brains are most
plastic when we are young children
...
Deaf people have enhanced peripheral vision
...
Stroking the face and arm, one
can feel it in their nonexistent fingers
...

-brain modification is reorganization and generate new brain cells over time
...
Our Divided Brain
-Brain’s two sides = differing functions
...

Similar lesions in right hemisphere seldom have such dramatic effects
...
(right = subordinate/minor
...


1
...
Reduce seizures in patience by separating them by cutting
the corpus callosum (wide band of axon fibers connecting the two hemispheres
...
(Joke from a patient after surgery: “I have a
splitting headache!”)
- neuropsychologist Karl lashley jested that corpus callosum served only to keep the
hemispheres from sagging
...

Sperry and gazzaniga revealed that the broad band of nearly 200 million nerve
fibers capable of transferring more than a billion bits of info per second had a more
significant purpose
...

- peculiar nature of visual wiring enabled researchers to send info from patients
left/right brain by having patient stare at spot and flash stimulus at right/left fields
...

-some split-brain patients were temporarily bothered by unruly independence of
their left hand
...

-most of the body’s paired organs (kidneys/lungs/breasts) preform identical
functions, providing a backup system should one side fail
...
Studying Hemispheric Differences in the Intact Brain
-perceptual task (brain waves, blood flow, glucose consumption) = increased right
hemispheric activity
...

-most recognize a picture faster when flashed to the right hemisphere, but words
more quickly if flashed to the left
...
Stroke in left hemisphere will
disrupt signing like a hearing person’s speaking
...

- two hemispheres: we have little doubt that we have unified brains with specialized
parts
...
Brain Organization and Handedness
90% are right handed
...
Over
half of left handers process speech in left hemisphere as well
...
Ultrasound observations of fetal
thumb-sucking: 9/10 sucked right hand’s thumb
...

-150 human babies: 2
...
After 5 months, head right
babies became right handed, and head left babies became left-handed
...

So, Is It All Right to Be Left-Handed?
-left-handers have more reading disabilities, allergies, migraine headaches, and are
smarter in Iran
...
Left-handers
have to deal with bumping elbows at dinner, awkward scissors, journal rings, and
awkward scissors
...


A Scientific Mystery: The Case of the Disappearing Southpaws
-With age, % of left-handers declines dramatically
...
That makes it easier for lefties to learn to gradually use their left hands
...

Left-handers are more likely to experience birth stress, headaches, more accidents
(cause of right handed equipment) and have more joint problems, use more tobacco
and alcohol, suffer more immune system problems
...


-Everything psychological is simultaneously biological
...
Brain development underlies a
child’s mental development
...

The brain stores memories
...
Mind and body together influence
vunerability to disease and capacity for healing
...
Our species’ evolutionary history may
predispose us to hurt, help, or love certain others
...
Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity (pages 95-105)

- We are all different, but family members have same common behavioral
tendencies
...
Together, our genes and environments design our unique body-mind
system and define the things that make us different
...

Parents, peers, and culture influence our beliefs and values, our interests, and food
tastes and our language and appearance
...


A
...

Behavior geneticists study our differences and weigh the relative effects of heredity
and environment
...
Genes: Our Codes for Life
Book of life = 46 chapters, 23 donated by mother’s egg, 23 donated by fathers
sperm
...
Genes, small segments of giant DNA molecules, form
the words of these chromosome books
...

I share 99
...
Genome researchers have
discovered the common sequence within human DNA
...
Variations in particular gene sites in DNA can define a
person’s uniqueness
...
Growth influenced by one group of genes, behavior influenced by
another
...
Twin Studies
-To disentangle the threads of heredity and environment, behavior geneticists often
use two sets of tweezers: twin studies and adoption studies
...
Study twins
...
Natures own human clones
...
If
one twin gets alzheimers then the other twin has a 60% chance of getting
alzheimers also
...
Risk of
divorce is 50% attributable to genetic factors
...

2) Separated Twins

Jim Lewis = twin separated at birth with a man named Jim Springer
...
The two got tested by university of Minnesota psychologist
who found that they were completely alike in almost every way
...
Another study: identical twins Askar Stohr and Jack Yufe, one a
catholic nazi, the other a Caribbean jew, have same habits
...
But they have dissimilar personalities
(characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting)
...
Environmental
factors shared by family’s children have virtually no impact on their personalities
...
Why are children in the same
family so different? Why do the shared genes and the shared family environment
have so little discernible effect on children’s personalities? Parents influence
children’s attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics
...
Most adoptive children thrive
especially when adopted as infants
...
Children benefit from adoption
...
Most emotionally reactive newborns tend to
also be the most reactive 9-month olds
...
Those who react with relaxed smiles are usually fearless and sociable
in their second year
...
Have become introverted adolescents
...
More than 900 new Zealanders: 3 year
olds have developed into impulsive, aggressive, and conflict- prone 21-year-olds
...
We can attribute to genetic influence 50 percent of the observed
variation among people
...


1) Group Differences
-heritable individual differences need not imply heritable group differences
...

2) Nature and Nurture
-the most important similarity is an enormous adaptive capacity
...
We are
all driven to eat, but depend on our culturally learned tastes
...
Nature and nurture work together like two hands
clapping
...


6) Gene-Environment Interaction
To say that genes and experience are both important is true
...
Neither
heredity nor experience dances alone
...

Genetically influenced traits evoke significant responses in others
...
Child’s nature and parents’ nurture interact
...
Gene and scene dance together
...
We are the product of a cascade
of interactions between our genetic predispositions and our surrounding
environments
...
Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity (pages 107-113)

B
...


a
...

- If a fox can’t flee, it will attack
...
Selected and
mated tamest 5% of males and 20% of females
...
Certain traits are selected by conferring over reproductive advantage
...
Genes selected during
history provide us with a great capacity to learn and therefore adapt to life in varied
environments
...

-big picture: lives are remarkably alike
...

-behavioral and biological similarities arise from shared human genome
...
95% of genetic variation exists within populations
...

-genes of individuals not so disposed tended to be lost from human gene pool over
generations
...
Because of prehistoric genetic legacy, we are predisposed to behave in
ways that promoted our ancestors’ surviving and reproducing
...
Why are biological dads less
likely than unrelated boyfriends to abuse and murder the children with whom they
share a home? Why do so many more people have phobias about spiders and snakes
than about more dangerous threats, like guns and electricity?
-how and why according to evolutionary psychology do women’s and men’s
sexuality differ?

b
...
We eat same foods, fear same heights,
avoid same predators, and perceive, learn, and remember similarly
...

-gender: the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people
define male and female
...
Casual sex is most
frequent among males with traditional masculine attitudes
...
Zero said yes
...
75% said yes
...
Misattributing
women’s cordiality as a come-on helps explain, but not excuse, men’s greater sexual
assertiveness
...


2) Natural Selection and Mating Preferences
-while a women normally incubates and nurses one infant, a male can spread his
genes through other females
...
Women feel attracted to healthy-looking men,
especially mature, dominant, bold, and affluent traits in men
...
Women want long term father potential material
...

Nature selects behaviors that increase the likelihood of sending one’s genes into the
future
...
Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective
- Without disputing nature’s selection of traits that enhance gene survival, critics see
problems with evolutionary psychology
...
Some worry about social consequences of
evolutionary psychology
...
Cultural expectations
bend the genders and attractiveness is relative to time and place
...
They vary within culture’s social
and family structures
...
They stress that
humans have a great capacity for learning and social progress
...
They remind us that
the study of how we came to be who we are need not dictate how we ought to act
...
Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity (pages 114-118)

C
...
Parents and Early Experiences
- Formative nurture that conspires with nature begins at conception, with the
prenatal environment
...


a1
...
Identical twins don’t
get the same prenatal nurture, even if they share the same placenta
...


a2
...
Experiences leave their mark on the brain
...
Enriched environments at an early age will
do that
...
Research teams have found that touch or
massaged rats gain weight more rapidly and develop faster neurologically
...
Repeated experiences modify a rat’s neural tissue at the very spot in
the brain that processes the experience
...
The result by puberty is a
massive loss of unemployed connections, a process known as pruning
...
During early childhood, youngsters can most easily master the
grammar and accent of another language
...
Maturing brain: use it or lose it
...
Nature and nurture sculpt our synapses
...


a3
...
Parents feel enormous satisfaction in their child’s success,
and shame in his or her failures
...
Belief that parents shape their offspring
as a potter molds clay
...
Peter Neubauer and Alexander Neubauer
illustrate how we may inappropriately credit or blame our parents
...

One did so to please his tidy mother
...
Parents can shape our differences: abused become abusive, neglected
become neglectful, loved but firmly handled become self-confident and socially
competent
...
Two children in the same
family are as different from one another as are pairs of children selected randomly
from the population
...
Parental nurture is like nutrition
...


B
...
The conformity behavior of children
seeking to fit in with various groups is a significant influence on day-to-day
behavior
...
)
-Knowing that lives are formed by influences beyond parental control
...

Powerful parental influence may occur indirectly (group of parents influence peer
group
...
Parental influence occurs when
parents help select their children’s neighborhood and peers
...




























III
...
Cultural Influences
-the mark of our species is the ability to learn and adapt
...
Culture is a better way of being social
...
Some invent customs like potato washing and passing them to peers
and offspring
...
Culture
enables an efficient division of labor
...
Nature manifests diversity
...


A
...

Example: Visiting Europe= smaller cars, left-handed fork use, nude beaches
...

- Japanese in North America: street shoes in the house, picnic lunch amid flies and
ants
...
Personal space- portable
buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
...

Cultures vary in expressiveness, and pace of life as well
...
Variation Over Time
-most western cultures change with remarkable speed
...
Between 1960 – 1993, teen
suicide rate tripled, divorce rate doubled, juvenile violent crime rate quadrupled,
and a quintupled prison population, and an escalating incidence of depression
...
Cultures change, vary, and shape our lives
...
Culture and the Self
Cultures vary in the event to which they give priority to the nurturing and
expression of one’s personal identity or of one’s group identity
...
Collectivism- giving
priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and
defining one’s identity accordingly
...
Individualism varies from person to person within any culture
...
Cut off from family, groups, and loyal friends, you
would lose the connections that have defined who you are
...
They have deeper and more stable attachments to their familiar

groups and families
...
Individuals within a culture vary and cultures include
varying subgroups
...

Elders and superiors are given respect
...
People remember those who have done them
favors and reciprocity becomes a social art
...

- Both individualism and collectivism offer benefits and come at a cost
...
Collectivist cultures offer a smorgasbord of life-styles and invite individuals
to construct their own identities, celebrate innovation and creativity, and tend to
respect individual human rights
...


D
...
Do you prefer children who are independent or who
comply with what others think? Westernized culture = independent
...


E
...

Within a culture, ethnic subgroups may behave differently but be influenced
similarly
...
Ethnic groups
differ in school achievement and delinquency, but are nor more than skin deep
when it comes to differences
...


















III
...
Gender Development
- We humans have an irresistible urge to organize our worlds into simple categories
...

Sexual interests and behaviors can be significant in gender difference
...
Gender Similarities and Differences
- Males and females are alike in many ways
...

There are some noticeable differences
...
Unique
people describe themselves by their unique traits
...
Women have 70% more body fat, 40% less muscle, and 5 inches shorter
than men
...
Women are catching up
with men
...
, Less obvious gender differences because of equality throughout
genders is becoming more prevalent in society
...
Men
are 4 times more likely to commit suicide or suffer alcoholism and are far more
likely to be diagnosed with autism, color-blindness, and hyperactivity as kids, and
antisocial personality disorder as adults
...
Gender and Aggression
- Men admit to more aggression than do women
...
Violent crime rates illustrate the male-to-female ratio for murder,
which is 9 to 1 in the USA, and 7 to 1 in Canada
...
Men also express more support for war
...


a2
...
Women are
more deferential, nurturing, and affiliative
...
Women leaders tend to be more democratic and welcoming of
subordinates’ participation in decision-making
...
Inequities of social power
...
Women get
less money than men
...


a3
...
Females are less concerned with individualistic
view and more concerned with making connections
...
Men are more likely to give answers to questions they
don’t know than women, who will admit that they don’t know
...
Women use conversation to explore relationships and men
use it to communicate solutions
...

USA: girls play less games and more time emailing friends
...
2 minutes) longer
on the phone than men (4
...
) Women purchase 85% of greeting cards
...
53% of men and 69% of women
said religion was important in their life
...
2 dozen winners and runner-ups on the skeptical inquirer’s list of
outstanding twentieth-century were men
...

Women are more open to spirituality and less skeptical
...
Women are more
intimate than men with friends (face to face talking rather than side to side talking
...
Both men and women have
intimate friendships with women
...


B
...
Men and women who face
similar challenges make the sexes similar
...
In mating, guys act like guys
...

- 7 weeks after conception, genes activated biological sex, determined by 23rd pair of
chromosomes; one from mother called an X Chromosome, and one from father,
either an x chromosome or y chromosome
...
Testosterone is
produced in the testes once the y chromosome pairs with the x chromosome
...
Glandular malfunction or hormone injections expose a female
embryo to excess testosterone, which causes female infants with masculineappearing genitals, which can be surgically removed
...
Some are more likely to play with cars and guns than
crayons and dolls, and some develop into lesbians
...

- Male vervet monkeys play with toy trucks, and female vervet monkeys play with
dolls
...
But it’s not always the case, and
women who are tomboys are often seen as different and strange
...
Parents of Canadian boy who lost penis to a botched circumcision
raised him as a girl rather than a damaged boy
...
She
didn’t like dolls, or kissing boys
...

- Sex chromosomes control sex hormones that bathe the fetal brain and influence its
wiring
...
Men have a

thicker section for space perception in the parietal cortex
...


C
...
What biology
initiates, culture accentuates
...
Gender Roles
- Role refers to cluster of prescribed actions
...
They can smooth social relations, saving awkward
decisions about who does laundry this week and who mows lawn
...
If we deviate from this norm, we feel anxious
...
41/44 countries say most people agreed that shared work and childcare is
most satisfying rather than women staying home while husband provides
...
Last century, at the beginning of it, only one
country let women vote
...
) At the end of it, the only democracy that
didn’t let women vote was Kuwait
...
S
...
By early 21st century, half were
...


a2
...
Gender-typed is the
acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role
...
Gender schema theory combines social learning theory with
cognition
...

Young children are gender detectives
...
For young children, gender schemas loom
large
...
Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity (pages 134-136)

Reflections on Nature and Nurture
- Trivial truths and great truths of paradoxes of modern science
...
Our ancestral
history helped form us as a species
...
Genes predispose both shared
humanity and individual differences
...

- also true that experiences form us
...
If genes and hormones predispose males to be
more physically aggressive, society magnifies gender difference through norms that
encourage macho for men and caring for women
...

Presidents in time become more presidential, servants more servile
...

- Gender roles are converging and both women/men have become fully capable of
effectively carrying out organizational roles at all levels
...
Roles change and we change
with them
...
Some people elect celibacy and defy genetic bent to reproduce
...
Personal beliefs are stronger than the product of nature and
nurture at times, and beliefs are affected by culture
...
Bad faith is attributing
responsibility for one’s fate to bad genes or bad influences
...
We are architects, and our hopes/goals/expectations
influence our future
...

- Some readers feel troubled by naturalism and evolutionism as contemporary
science and worry that science of behavior will destroy sense of beauty of human
creature
...
Galileo and
the sun being the center caused a leap in astronomy that created more questions
...

- Rather than fearing scientific discovery, we can welcome it to awaken our sense of
awe
...
Although we appear to have been created from dust,
over eons of time, the end result is a priceless creature with potential beyond our
imagination
...
Developing Through the Life Span (pages 139-143)

A
...

a
...

Women are born with all the eggs they will ever have
...
Sperm approaches egg 85,000 times its size, releases digestive
enzymes that eat away egg’s protective coating
...
Before ½ a day, the egg nucleus and the sperm nucleus fuse
into one
...


b
...
Within
first week cells begin to differentiate (specialize into structure and function)
...
10 days after conception,
the zygote attaches itself to the uterine wall
...
Inner cells become embryo
...

- 9 weeks after conception, embryo looks human
...
6th month,
stomach is formed and functional
...
Fetus is responsive to sound
...

-Each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors affect development
...
Some like teratogens slip by (harmful agents such as
certain viruses and drugs
...
AIDS virus
mom = AIDS virus baby
...
Smokers have babies who receive fewer
nutrients and are underweight and at risk for various problems
...
Fetus will depress CNS activity
...
1/750 infants = fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) marked by
disproportioned head and brain abnormalities
...
Psychological state of mother rodent affects
fetus
...

c
...
Escape pain
by moving limb
...
Parents are in awe of
coordinated sequence of reflexes by which baby gets food
...
Hungry baby may cry
...
What can baby see hear smell and think? Babies prefer sights and sounds that
facilitate social responsiveness
...
We gaze
longer at more complex objects
...
Neural networks stamped with smell of mother’s body and bra
...









































IV
...
Infancy and Childhood
-newborn to toddler to teenager, neural hardware and cognitive software develop
together
...
Physical Development
-biological development underlies infant’s psychological development
...
Brain Development
-womb: neural cells form at ¼ million per minute
...
Day of birth= most brain cells one will ever have
...
3-6 neural network sprouts most rapidly in frontal lobes
...
After puberty the pathways supporting
language and agility proliferate after which excess connections shut down and
others strengthen
...
It decrees many commonalities and sets basic
course of development
...
Motor Development
-Developing brain enables physical coordination, and as muscles and nervous
system mature, more complicated skills emerge
...
Roll over into sit into
crawl into walk
...
25% can walk by 11 months
...
90% by age 15 months
...

-genes play a major role as twins develop motor patterns on the same day
...
Experience
before that time has a limited effect, which is true for other physical skills
...
Maturation and Infant Memory
-Earliest memories rarely predate 3rd birthday
...
5 years
...
We organize memories differently at age 3 or 4
...

Infants’ preverbal memories don’t easily translate into their later language
...

-Although we consciously recall little before age 4, some memories exist during and
beyond early years
...


b
...

-Piaget was convinced that a child’s mind isn’t a miniature model of an adult’s
...

But after, we understand that children reason in illogical ways about problems
whose solutions are self evident to adults
...

- He believed the driving force behind this is our struggle to make sense of our
experiences
...
They are mental molds into which we pour our experiences
...
We
assimilate new experiences, and interpret them in terms of current understanding
...
Assimilation is
interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas
...


b1
...
Piaget believed that children experience spurts
of change followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive
developmental plateau to the next
...
Sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
...
Sensorimotor Stage
- from birth to nearly age 2, babies take in world through sensory and motor
interactions with objects through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and
grasping
...
Young infants lack object permanence, the
awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived
...


2
...
They are too young
to preform mental operations
...
Same
amount in a fat small glass as there is if you pour it into a tall skinny glass
...
Egocentrism: the preoperational child’s difficulty taking
another’s point of view
...
What’s his name? Jim
...
If I can’t see you, you can’t see me
...

Theory of mind is people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states – about
their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict
...
Researchers explore children’s ability
to take another person’s perspective with seemingly simple experiments
...
They say what is on
their mind
...
Concrete Operational Stage
-concrete operational stage is the stage of cognitive development from 6 or 7 – 11
years of age, during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to
think logically about concrete events
...


4
...
As children approach adolescence, many become capable of solving
hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences: if this then that
...


b2
...
But today’s
researchers see development as more continuous that did Piaget
...
Time magazine said he was one of the
century’s 20 most influential scientists and thinkers and rated in a survey of British
psychologists as the greatest 20th century psychologist
...

-Piaget contended that children construct their understanding from their
interactions with the world and they aren’t passive receptacles waiting to be filled
with teacher’s knowledge
...
Children’s cognitive immaturity is adaptive, and is nature’s strategy
for keeping children close to protective adults
...
Developing Through the Life Span (pages 154-163)


C
...
Bonds of attachment form, how, and what happens when they form securely
or are missing or broken? Babies have attachment with mother
...
The
brain, mind, and social-emotional behavior develop together
...


c1
...
Attachment: an emotional tie with another person’ shown in young
children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on
separation
...
But accidental finding overturned this explanation
...
Body Contact
- Separated monkeys from mothers after birth and raised them in sanitary
individual cages with cheesecloth baby blanket
...
Made 2 artificial mothers, one bare wire cylinder with a wooden head, the
other a cylinder wrapped with terry cloth
...
The monkeys preferred
the comfy cloth mother
...
This is similar to humans
...
Human attachment consists of one person
providing another with a safe haven when distressed and a secure base from which
to explore
...
Familiarity
- Contact is key to attachment
...
Critical period: an optimal
period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or
experiences produces proper development
...

Imprinting: The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical
period very early in life
...

Familiarity is a safety signal, and breeds content
...
Attachment Differences
- Infants in a strange situation display secure attachments 60% of the time
...
Source of
differences is mother’s behavior
...
Infants who lack a caring
mother are said to suffer “maternal deprivation” and a caring father, “father
absence
...
Mothering has meant nurturing
...
The power of early attachment does gradually
relax
...


c3
...
Emotional scars form from being locked away or
neglected
...
Total
isolation bores scars like Harlow’s monkeys
...
However, this doesn’t mean that today’s victim becomes tomorrow’s
victimizer
...
Most become normal adults
...

Extreme childhood drama can leave heavy footprints on brain
...
Disruption of Attachment
- Separated from their families, both monkey and human infants become upset and
withdrawn, and even despairing
...
Most infants recover from
separation distress
...
Those effects are short term
...
Adults can
suffer through it too if death or separation of loved one occurs
...
Agitated preoccupation with lost partner, then
sadness, and then emotional detachment, and then a return to normal life occurs
...


2
...
Research shifted to the effects of
differing quality of day care on different types and ages of children
...
Poor care is boring and unresponsive to children’s
needs
...
Kids ages 4 ½ - 6 who spent the most time in daycare had slightly advanced thinking and language skills, as well as an increased rate
of aggressiveness and defiance
...

Stress hormone levels rise during day care days
...
Working mothers spend less
total time with infants, but tend to partially compensate by sacrificing other
activities during off hours, and spend more time talking to and holding infants
...
Children’s ability to thrive under varied types of
responsive caregiving shouldn’t surprise us
...



c4
...
Self-concept: a sense of one’s
identity and personal worth
...
Behavior provides clues to
the beginnings of self-awareness, which begins when we recognize ourselves in a
mirror as Charles Darwin stated
...
Children start to describe themselves in terms of their gender, group
memberships, and psychological traits at school age
...
Their self-views affect their actions
...


c5
...

-Permissive parents submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use
little punishment
...
They exert control and
explain reasons behind rules, encourage open discussion, and allow exceptions to
rules
...

Authoritarian parents " less social skill and self-esteem
...
These certain childhood outcomes are
correlational
...
Perhaps children’s traits
influence parenting more than vice versa
...

-Parents struggling with conflicting advice and with the stresses of child- rearing
should remember that all advice reflects the advice-giver’s values
...




















IV
...
Adolescence
Development is lifelong
...
It starts with the physical
beginnings of sexual maturity and ends with the social achievement of independent
adult status
...
” Embarrassment is just 1 of the many adolescent
moods, and despite the mood swings, adolescence can also be a time of vitality
without the cares of adulthood, a time of rewarding friendships, of heightened
idealism and a growing sense of life’s exciting possibilities
...
Physical Development
- Adolescence begins with puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a
person becomes capable of reproducing
...
11 of girls,
13 in boys
...
These develop
dramatically during growth spurt, as well as secondary sex characteristics: the nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as breasts and hips and voice and body
hair
...
Girls
puberty starts with breast development around age 10
...
Menarche: first menstrual period
...

-Sequence of physical changes in puberty are more predictable than timing
...
Early maturation for girls can be
stressful, causing teasing and sometimes sexual harassment
...

-During adolescence, brain cells prune connections we don’t use
...
Teens
are less guilty by reason of adolescence
...
Cognitive Development
- Adolescents’ developing ability to reason gives them a new level of social
awareness and moral judgment
...





b1
...
Gradually most achieve formal
operational stage, and become capable of abstract logic
...


b2
...


1
...
Moral
reasoning is the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong
...
)

Preconventional morality: Obey either to avoid punishment or gain concrete
rewards
...


Postconventional morality: affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows what one
personally perceives as basic ethical principles
...
Moral Feeling
-mind makes moral judgments as it makes aesthetic judgments- quickly and
automatically
...
Moral reasoning aims to convince others of what we
intuitively feel
...


3
...
Talk is cheap and
emotions are fleeting
...
Empathy is taught to
todays children
...
















IV
...
Social Development
- Erik Erikson: each stage has its own psychological task, a crisis that needs
resolution
...
The adolescent search for identity also occurs
...
Forming and Identity
- Western culture adolescents try out different personalities to form a self definition
that unifies the various selves into a consistent and comfortable identity: one’s
sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self
by testing and integrating various roles
...
Others adopt an
opposition to parental views, and some conform to jocks, preps, geeks, and Goths
...
Late teen years provide new
opportunities for trying out different roles
...
As Aristotle long ago recognized, we humans are “the social
animal
...
Parent and Peer Influence
-Preschooler who can’t be close enough to mother but wants to will not be close to
mother in adulthood
...
Differences can
also sometimes lead to estrangement and stress
...
Positive relations with parents = positive peer relations, healthiness,
intimate friendships, and good grades
...

Adolescence = diminishing parental influence
...
Excluded teens suffer in silence for
the most part but some act out in violence
...


d
...
Late 20s, most feel comfortably
independent
...
After sexual maturity, society bestowed adult
responsibilities on young person, who worked, married, and had kids
...
Later
independence and earlier sexual maturity have widened the gab between biological
maturity and social independence
...
No longer adolescents, have adult responsibilities, usually around
college, and emerges gradually
...
Developing Through the Life Span (pages 175-180)

D
...
Ages aren’t as definite when dealing with development in
adulthood
...


a
...
World-class sprinters and swimmers are the first to notice, women peak
earlier than men, and swimmers peak at early twenties
...
Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood
- Post 40 year old athletes know that physical decline accelerates gradually
...
Physical vigor has less to do with
age and more to do with health and exercise habits
...
Menopause: the time of natural
cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes women experiences
as her ability to reproduce declines
...
Symptoms include hot flashes and moodiness
...
A women’s expectations and attitudes
influence the emotional impact of menopause
...
”
Men experience no equivalent to menopause, but they do experience a gradual
decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation
...


a2
...
During old age many of the brain’s neurons die
...
Recognition memory declines with age
...
Remember, these are False! They are
misconceptions
...
Life Expectancy
Life expectancy differs for males and females
...

Women outlive men by 4 years in world-wide, 5-6 years in Canada, USA, and
Australia
...
We wear out because we aren’t needed to procreate
anymore
...
Sensory Abilities

-Visual sharpness declines because of pupil shrinkage and less transparent lens
...


3
...
But accumulation of antibodies
means that old people are less likely to suffer short-term ailments
...
Fatal car incident rates increase sharply after age 75
...
Women’s brains shrink
slower than men’s
...
We are more likely to rust from disuse than
to wear out from over use
...
Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
- Up to age 95, the incidence of mental disintegration roughly doubles every 5 years
...
Alzheimer’s disease: a progressive and irreversible brain
disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language,
and finally, physical functioning
...
After 5-20
years, person becomes emotionally flat, then disoriented and disinhibited, then
mentally vacant
...


























IV
...
Cognitive Development
-Among the most controversial questions in the study of the human life span is
whether adult cognitive abilities such as memory, creativity, and intelligence,
parallel the gradually accelerating decline of physical abilities
...
Aging and Memory
- People most vividly recall experiences in life’s second 2 decades
...
”
Young adults are better at remembering names
...
Forgetting depends on the type of
information you are trying to remember
...
P
- Prospective memory remains strong when events help trigger memories
...
Those who study
capacity to learn and remember are aware of one other important complication
...


b2
...


1
...
Researchers test and compare people of various ages in crosssectional studies
...
This concluded falsely that the decline of mental
ability with age is part of the general process of the organism as a whole
...
Phase II: Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability
- Psychologists saw a chance to study longitudinally
...
Until late in
life, intelligence remained stable, and even increased in some
...


3
...
Intelligence is not a
single trait
...
Adults do well
in vocab, knowledge, and ability to integrate information
...
Tends to increase with age
...
Intellectual performances can either increase or decrease
with age, depending on what we assess and how we assess it
...
Developing Through the Life Span (pages 185-194)


c
...
New job = new relationships, expectations, and demands
...
Birth of child = responsibilities
and alters life focus
...


c1
...
Midlife transition, some psychologists argue,
is a crisis, a time of great struggle, of regret, or even of feeling struck down by life
...
¼ experiencing life
crisis is triggered by a major event rather than age
...


1
...
Even chance events like love can mark transitions
...
Only 5% said they
could have fallen for their twin’s partner
...
Adulthood’s Commitments
- Intimacy and generativity dominate adulthood
...


1
...

Parents who nurture their children to maturity were more likely to have genes
passed along to posterity than parents who didn’t
...
Adult bonds of love are most satisfying and enduring when marked by
similar interest, values, emotional and material support, and intimate self-
disclosure
...
Marriage has become a union that often defies management
...
9/10 heterosexual adults marry worldwide
...
Lesbian couples report greater well-being than
those who are alone
...
5:1 positive interactions: negative interactions
...
Sometimes this is called a “post launch honeymoon” if they maintain
close relationships with their children
...
Work

- Who are you depends on what do you do
...
Alienated
and hostile adolescents tend to have less satisfying work experiences that
undermine their achieving a positive transition into the working world
...
Form
men and women, choosing a career path is difficult
...
In the end, happiness is about having work that fits
interests and provides with a sense of competence and accomplishment
...
Well-Being Across the Life Span
- People focus less on mistakes made than things that they failed to do when asked
about any regrets
...
However, positive feelings grow after midlife and
negative feelings subside
...
Adult moods
are less extreme but more enduring
...


c4
...
If death comes at an expected
late-life times, the grieving may be short lived
...
Sometimes loss is unbearable
...
Some cultures
encourage public weeping, others hide grief
...
Most can be helped by therapy
...
Some grieve
more, some grieve less
...
As the body’s
immune system weakens, the elderly become more vulnerable to life-threatening
diseases
...


C
...


a
...
Kohlberg’s work reflected a worldview characteristic of
educated males in individualistic cultures and emphasized thinking over acting
...
The concept of stage remains useful, and stage theories contribute a
developmental perspective on the whole life span, by suggesting how people of one
age think and act differently when they arrive at a later age
...
Stability and Change
- Over time, are people’s personalities consistent or do they change? Researchers
found evidence for both stability and change
...
Research agrees on these points: 1st 2
years of life provide poor basis for predicting one’s eventual traits
...
(Temperament is more stable than
social attitudes
...

- Life requires both stability and change
...






































V
...

- Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information,
enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
...

- Top-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental
processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and
expectations
...


A
...
They enable each organism to
obtain the information it needs
...
Thresholds
- Psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of
stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
...
Absolute Thresholds
- Our awareness of faint stimuli such as the wing of a be falling on our cheek, or how
we can smell a single drop of perfume in a three room apartment, illustrates our
absolute threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus
50% of the time
...


a2
...
Signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we
detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation (noise)
...
Signal detection
theorist seek to understand why people respond differently to the same stimuli and
why the same person’s reactions vary as circumstances change
...


a3
...
Subliminal: below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
...
But
can we be affected by it? Under certain conditions, yes
...
An invisible image or word can briefly prime your response to a later
question
...
But does the
fact of subliminal sensation verify entrepreneurial calms of subliminal persuasion?
Subliminal procedures offer little or nothing of value to the marketing practitioner
...
Difference Thresholds
- To function effectively, we need absolute thresholds low enough to allow us to
detect important sights, sounds, textures, tastes, and smells
...
We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable
difference
...
So pretty much it’s the
minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half of the time
...
Weber’s law: the principle that, to be
perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
rather than a constant amount
...


b
...
This adjusts for all the senses except sight, because our eyes are always
moving to guarantee that stimulation on the eyes’ receptors continually changes so
we don’t go blind to things we’ve already seen for a few moments
...
Our
perceptions are organized by the meanings that our minds impose
...


B
...
In sensation, the transforming of
stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our
brains can interpret
...
The Stimulus Input: Light Energy
- Scientifically speaking, what strikes our eyes isn’t color but pulses of
electromagnetic energy that our visual system perceives as color
...

Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of
radio transmission
...
Wavelength determines its hue: (the dimension of color that is
determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names
...
)

b
...
) Behind the pupil is a lens: (the transparent structure
behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina) and it dies
this by changing its curvature in a process called accommodation: (the process by
which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
...

- Acuity: The sharpness of vision can be affected by small distortions in the eye’s
shape
...
If you are
nearsighted, you see better when you look at objects close to you
...

- Farsightedness: opposite of nearsightedness, you can see better from far away
...
The Retina
- rods: Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral
and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
...
The cones detect fine detail and
give rise to color sensations
...
The axons from
the network of ganglion cells converge like strands of a robe to form an optic nerve:
the nerve that caries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
...

- Rods and cones differ in their geography and in the tasks they handle
...
The fovea contains only cones, no rods
...
Visual Information Processing
- Visual information percolates through progressively more abstract levels
...
The retina’s neural layers pass along electrical impulses and also help
to encode and analyze the sensory information
...
Any given retinal area
relays its info to a corresponding location in the occipital lobe – the visual cortex in
the back of your brain
...
(rubbing your eyes when they’re closed)
...
Feature Detection
When individual ganglion cells register information in their region of the visual
field, they send signals to the occipital lobe’s visual cortex
...
Neurons receive that info and respond to a scene’s specific
features
...
The
brain activity that underlies perception combines sensory input with our
assumptions and expectations
...
Parallel Processing
- our brain engages in parallel processing
...
To recognize a face, the brain
integrates info that the retina projects to several visual cortex areas, compares it to
stored info, then enables you to recognize the image as the person you know
...
You can’t perceive movement
...
Color Vision
- What we see is actually everything that object is not
...
The tomato reflects wavelengths of red
...
1/50 is color-deficient and usually male
...
These are the
primary colors, red, green and blue
...
” They simply lack functioning of red- or green- sensitive cones, or

sometimes both
...
Afterimages are what you see when you star at an object
and then stare at a blank surface and see the opposite image
...
The retina’s red, green, and blue cones respond in varying
degrees to different color stimuli, as the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
suggested
...


c1
...
That something more is the surrounding context
...
This is known as color constancy: perceiving
familiar objects as having consistent color, even if lengths reflected by the object
...


C
...
Like all other senses, hearing, or audition, is highly adaptive
...
We hear a wide range of sounds but we hear
the sounds with frequencies in a range corresponding to that of the human voice the
best
...
The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves
- Hit a piano key and the resulting stimulus energy is sound waves- jostling
molecules of air, each bumping into the next like a shove being transmitted through
a concert hall’s crowded exit tunnel
...
The ears then transform those vibrations into nerve
impulses which our brain decodes as sounds
...
Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass
appoint in a given time
...
Short waves= high frequency and high pitch
...
Decibels are the measuring unit for sound energy
...
Whisper = 20 decibels
...

Prolonged exposure above 85 decibels produces hearing loss
...
The Ear
- outer ear is visable
...
Middle ear: the chamber
between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and
stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval
window
...


Inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals,
and vestibular sacks
...
How
do we detect loudness? The more hair cells respond, the louder the sound
...
How Do We Perceive Pitch?
- Current thinking on how we discriminate pitch combines 2 theories: the place
theory and the frequency theory
...

Frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up
the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its
pitch
...


b2
...
Two ears are better than one for at least two
reasons
...
The intensity of the sound is greater on the right,
and the right ear receives the sound sooner than the left ear
...
Why? Because such
sounds strike the two ears simultaneously and equal in intensity and time
...























V
...
Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture
- Ear’s intricate and delicate structure makes it vulnerable to damage
...
Conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the
mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
...
) Sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by
damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve
deafness
...
Hearing
aids improve hearing by amplifying vibrations for frequencies
...


c1
...
Cochlear
Implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the
auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
...


1
...
” Lose one sense, gain
more of another
...




















V
...
Other Important Senses
- Human major senses: seeing and hearing
...
Other four senses: touch taste smell and
sense of body position and movement
...


a
...
Sense if touch is actually a mix of at least four distinct skin senses:
pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
...
There is no simple relationship between what we feel at a given spot
and the type of specialized nerve ending found there
...
Stroking adjacent pressure spots creates a tickle
...
Touch sensations involve more than tactile simulation
...
See fake hand, real hand right
underneath hidden, feel touch when rubber hand is touched
...
Pain
-Pain is your body’s way of telling you something has gone wrong
...
Without warning of pain, the effects of unchecked
infections and injuries accumulate
...
The suffering of such people and those with persistent or
recurring backaches arthritis, headaches, and cancer-related pain prompts two
questions: what is pain? How might we control it?

1
...
Phantom sensations: Dreamer may see with eyes closed
and listener may hear a ringing during utter silence and 7/10 amputees may feel
pain or movement in nonexistent limbs
...
This also occurs with other senses
...
We see, hear, taste,
smell, and feel with our brain
...
There are no special
receptors for pain
...
The “gate “ is opened
by the activity of pain signals traveling up the small nerve fibers and is closed by
activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
...
Pain gate can also be closed by information from the brain
...
The

brain creates pain
...
Pain is a Sprain Mainly in the Brain
...
Pain Control
- If pain is where body meets mind, it’s physical and psychological, and should be
treated both physically and psychologically
...
Lamaze method of childbirth: relaxation and counter
stimulation and distraction
...
Well-trained nurse may distract a needle-shy patient by small talk
...
Because pain is in the brain, diverting the
brain’s attention may bring relief
...
Taste
- Sense of taste involves several basic sensations
...
The fifth is the meaty taste of umami,
best experienced as the flavor enhancer monosodium glutamate
...
Pleasureful tastes attract us to energy-rich foods that help us
survive
...
To ancestors, plants and meat
were toxic
...
Taste buds have pores that catch food
chemicals and these molecules are sensed by 50-100 taste receptor cells, some of
which respond mostly to sweet-tasting molecules and others to salty sour or bitter
tasting ones
...
) Taste sensitivity decreases with age, which is why adults
enjoy stronger tasting foods that children resist
...
Bitter or sweet substance on
newborn’s tongue and baby’s tongue and face reacts like an adult’s
...
If you lose taste sensation from one side of you tongue, you probably won’t
notice because the other side will become correspondingly supersensitive and the
brain doesn’t localize taste well
...

-Taste buds are essential for taste, as well as your nose
...

Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling are not totally separate channels
...
Sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may
influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
...
Smell
Breaths come in pairs except at two moments: birth and death
...
Smell is chemical
...
They instantly
alert the brain through their axon fibers
...

That’s how pups find their mother seals
...
Olfactory receptors recognize
odors individually
...
They
are embedded on the surface of nasal cavity neurons, and the smells slip into the
receptors like keys into a lock
...
We aren’t
good at describing scents like we are at discriminating them
...
Animals that have more receptors than us use their
sense of smell to communicate and navigate
...
Etc
...
We
have a remarkable capacity to recognize long-forgotten odors and their associated
personal episodes
...



d
...
We would be helpless
...
We
come equipped with millions of position and motion sensors all over our body in
muscles, tendons, and joints
...
Kinesthesis: the system for sensing the position and movement of individual
body parts
...
(stand on one foot and lose your eyes,
you will have trouble)
...
The biological gyroscopes for this sense of
equilibrium are in the inner ear
...
We get dizzy after spinning and stopping because fluid in ears
hasn’t stopped with us
...

-We have taken a bottom-up look at how we experience the world, starting with
how our ingenious sensory receptors transduce physical energy into neural
messages sent to our brain
...
Experiences are in the brain, which can choose how to
interpret neural activity or may even conjure up perceived sights, sounds, and pains
without any external stimulation
...
Perception (Pages 237-244)

- We perceive objects through our senses, with our mind
...
We must also select, organize, and interpret (top-down) our sensations
(in a process called perception)
...


A
...
Selective attention: the focusing of conscious
awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect
...
Yet, we intuitively make great use of the other 10,999,960 bits
...
Aaaaand now you notice
...

- At the level of conscious awareness, our attention is divided
...

- We select just a few of the immense array of visual stimuli to process
...

Change blindness and change deafness can also occur (being oblivious to talking to
another person when giving directions because if it’s out of sight, it’s out of mind
...


B
...

Visual Capture: the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses
...


C
...
Gestalt: an
organized whole
...
In perception the whole may exceed the sum
of its parts
...

Perception is not just opening a shutter and letting a picture print itself on the brain
...
Mind matters
...
Form Perception
-What abilities does your eye/brain system need to recognize faces at a glance
...
Figure and Ground
- Our first perceptual task is to perceive any object called the figure as distinct from
its surroundings called the ground
...

2
...
Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli
into coherent groups
...

-Proximity: we group nearby figures together so that instead of seeing 6 lines we see 3
groups of 2 lines
...

- Continuity: we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous
...

-Closure: we fill in gaps to create complete, whole objects
...
Sometimes however,
they lead us astray
...
Depth Perception


b1
...
Monocular Cues


c
...
Perceptual Consistency


d1
...
Size Distance Relationship


d2
...
Perceptual Interpretation


a
...
Perceptual Adaptation


c
...
Context Effects


d
...
Is There Extrasensory Perception?


a
...
Putting ESP to Experimental Test












































VIII
...
We learn from experience
...
Adaptability is our capacity to learn new behaviors that
enable us to cope with changing circumstances
...


A
...
By linking two events that occur close together, associative learning
occurs
...
Successful adaptation requires both nature (the needed genetic
predispositions) and nurture (a history of appropriate learning)
...
In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two
stimuli and thus to anticipate events
...
Conditioning is one form of
learning, another is observational learning from the actions and experiences of
others, like looking at somebody who sets a good or bad example and learning from
their mistakes/accomplishments
...
Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) explored the phenomenon of classical conditioning
...
Watson, who urged his colleagues to discard reference to inner
thoughts, and that psychology should be the study of observable behavior
(behaviorism)
...
Pavlov’s Experiments
- His life was dedicated to research
...
) He
noticed that when he studied a dog’s digestive system, the dog was salivating to
stimuli associated with food rather than just the food itself
...

- 1
...
k
...
, UR
...
The food in the mouth triggers a salivary reflex, so the food
was an unconditioned stimulus, a
...
a
...
3
...


b1
...
If US appears before CS then conditioning won’t
occur
...
It doesn’t learn from the

past from a CS
...


b2
...
However, spontaneous recovery can happen, where even after
extinction occurs, the CS will randomly cause a CR
...
Generalization
- Pavlov noticed that generalization occurred
...
Emotional reactions to one stimulus generalize to similar
stimuli
...
Discrimination
Pavlov’s dogs learned to respond to the sound of a particular tone and not to other
tones
...





























VIII
...
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
- Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive process and how
biological constraints effect the learning capacity
...


b5
...
The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned
response
...
The principle that classical
conditioning isn’t a stupid process by which the organism willy-nilly forms
associations between any two stimuli that happen to occur, helps explain why
classical conditioning reatements that ignore cognition often have limited success
...


b6
...
Any natural response could be
conditioned to any neutral stimulus, according to Gregory kimble in 1956, but 25
years later, he admitted he was wrong
...
Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn
some things rather than others
...

Nature prepares the members of each species to learn those things curcial to their
survival
...
The discovery of biological constraints affirms the value of
different levels of analysis when seeking to understand phenomena such as
learning
...
Adaptation sheds
light on exceptions
...
Pavlov’s Legacy
- Pavlov’s ideas about conditioning taught us that classical conditioning is a basic
form of learning
...
Pavlov taught us about
objective learning as well
...
Applications of classical conditioning
- Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning apply to human health and well-being
(crack cocaine users, alcoholics, immune system response to a taste associated with
immune boosting drugs)
...







VIII
...
Operant Conditioning
- Classical conditioning is one way of teaching, but another is operant conditioning
...
Both classical and
operant conditioning involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery,
generalization, and discrimination
...
It also involves respondent
behavior – behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus;
Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning
...
Is the organism learning associations
between events that it doesn’t control (classical conditioning) or is it learning
associations between its behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?

a
...
Law of effect – Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed
by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by
unfavorable consequences become less likely
...
He
developed behavioral technology
...
These experiments have explored the precise conditions that foster
efficient and enduring learning
...
Shaping Behavior
-Skinner’s experiments used shaping – an operant conditioning procedure in which
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired
behavior
...
Experiments
show that some animals are remarkably capable of forming concepts; they
demonstrate this by discriminating between classes of events or objects
...

Examples of reinforcers are gold stars on paper with 100% on them
...
If a kid needs a
shoe tied and he cries for help and the dad helps, that is a negative reinforcer
...





c2
...
Reinforcer- in operant conditioning, any
event that strengthens the behavior it follows
...
Positive reinforcement, and negative reinforcement are two of them
...
Positive reinforcement –
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food
...
Negative reinforcement – Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing
negative stimuli, such as shock
...
This is not the same as
punishment
...
Attention, approval, and money are positive reinforcers for people
...
Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers
- Here are two more types of reinforcers
...
This is different
than conditioned reinforcers – a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through
its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer
...
Secondary enforcers greatly enhance our ability to
influence one another
...
Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers
- Two more types of reinforcers have to do with the time and manner a stimuli
appears and the amount of reward that follows a given action
...
A big step toward maturity – and toward gaining the most satisfying life –
is learning to delay gratification, to control one’s impulses in order to achieve more
valued rewards
...
Like staying up to watch TV, but being tired and
sleep deprived tomorrow
...
Reinforcement Schedules
- Most of these examples have been of continuous reinforcement – reinforcing the
desired response every time it occurs
...
Imagine a
pigeon that has learned to peck a key to obtain food
...
Hope springs
eternal
...
Yet
occasionally, usually coincidentally, pedestrians are reinforced with a walk light
soon after pressing the button
...

Fixed-ratio schedules – in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that
reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
...
Variable-ratio schedule – in operant conditioning, a
reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of
responses
...
Fixed-interval schedules – in operant

conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed
...
Variable-interval schedules – in operant conditioning, a
reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
...
Slow steady responding occurs
...
Learning (Pages 332-339)

c4
...
Reinforcement increases a
behavior
...

Examples: a rat touching a forbidden object is shocked
...
A dog has learned to come running at the sound of the
electric can opener will stop coming if its master starts running the machine to
attract the dog an banish it to the basement
...
Larzelere notes that spanking children can increase their aggression,
depression, and low self-esteem
...
Physical punishment has
drawbacks
...
(child acts like parents)
...
Physical punishment
may increase aggressiveness by demonstrating that aggression is a way to cope with
problems
...
Punishment
tells you what not to do; reinforcers tell you what to do
...
Most psychologists now favor an emphasis
on reinforcement: Notice people doing something right and affirm them for it
...
Extending Skinner’s Understanding
- Skinner granted the existence of private thought processes and biological
underpinnings of behavior, but was criticized for discounting the importance of
these processes and predispositions
...
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
- We have seen several hints that cognitive processes might be at work in operant
learning
...

The animals behave as if they expected that repeating the response would soon
produce the reward
...
Latent Learning
- Evidence of cognitive processes has also come from studying rats in mazes
...
For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a
cognitive map of it
...
There is more to learning than associating a response with a
consequence
...



2
...

Excessive rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation – a desire to perform a
behavior for its own sake
...
Example; if a
sports coach aims to promote enduring interest in an activity without pressuring
players into winning alone, he or she should focus on the intrinsic joy of play and
reaching one’s potential
...
)

c6
...
Skinner’s former associates Keller Breland and Marian Breland observed
biological predispositions while using operant procedures to train animals for
circuses, TV shows, and movies
...
They tried to train pigs to pick up large wooden “dollars” and deposit
them in a piggy bank, but they drifted back to their natural ways
...


c
...
He repeatedly insisted that external influences shape behavior and urged
the use of operant principles to influence behavior at work, school, and home
...
Critics said he
dehumanized people by neglecting free will and self-control
...
Applications of Operant Conditioning
- Reinforcement technologies are also at work in schools, sports, workplaces, and
homes
...
At School
- Skinner and others advocated the use of teaching machines and textbooks that
would shape learning in smallsteps and provide immediate reinforcement for
correct responses
...
Teacher B
paces the material according to each student’s rate of learning
...
“Good instruction demands two things
...
” Computers helped
...


2
...
Golf students learn putting by starting with very
short putts and eventually they step farther and farther
...
Those trained by this behavioral
method show, in both testing and game situations, faster improvement in their skill
...
At Work
- Business managers have capitalized on psychological research
...
Well-defined and achievable is the desired performance
...
It’s wise to make reinforcement immediate
...
At Home
- Compared with people who rent apartments in buildings where energy costs are
paid by the landlord, those who live in comparable buildings but pay their own
utility bills (therefore reaping the rewards of their own savings) use about 20% less
energy
...

Whatever we subsidize, we tend to get more of
...
What if we lowered the tax on
work and simultaneously raised it on the burning of fossil fuels?
-Give children attention and other reinforcers when they are behaving well
...
Ignore whining and it will
diminish
...
Give them a time-out
...
1:
state your goal
...
3: Reinforce the desired behavior
...


F
...
Through operant conditioning, an organism associates its operant
behavior with their consequences
...






VIII
...
Learning by Observation
- Conditioning principles alone do not tell us the whole story
...
Observational learning – learning by observing
others
...
Modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific
behavior
...

“We are, in truth, more than half what we are by imitation
...
Imitation is all the more striking in humans
...
The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may
enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
...
Same firing occurs with
monkey see, monkey do
...
The imitation of models shapes
even very young children’s behavior
...


A
...
Picture this
...
A preschool
child is at work on a drawing
...
The child is taken to another
room where there are better toys but the experimenter saves the toys for others
...


B
...
School shootings in
one state are threatened shootings in other states following the school shootings
...


b1
...
Prosocial behavior – positive,
constructive, helpful behavior
...
Mahatma
Gandhi and MLK Jr
...
Parents are also powerful
models
...

Sometimes, however, models say one thing and do another
...
Television and Observational Learning
- Television becomes the source of observational learning
...
Television viewers are learning about life from a rather peculiar
storyteller that reflects the culture’s mythology but not its reality
...
The APAC on Violence and Youth says that

there is absolutely no doubt that higher levels of viewing violence on TV are
correlated with increased acceptance of aggressive attitudes and increased
aggressive behavior
...
Our knowledge of learning principles comes from the work on thousands of
investigators
...
They illustrate the impact that can result from
single-minded devotion to a few well-defined problems and ideas
...
Memory (Pages 349-353)

- “Memory allows us to recognize friends, neighbors, and acquaintances and call
them by their names; to knit, type, drive, and play the piano; to speak English,
Spanish, of Mandarin Chinese” notes Rebecca Rupp
...
You might as well be a rutabaga or a
cabbage” says James McGaugh
...
The Phenomenon of Memory
- Your memory is your mind’s storehouse, the reservoir of your accumulated
learning
...
Studying memory’s extremes has helped researchers
understand how memory works
...
Memory loss can occur after strokes, like in the book the narrator
said his father had all his previous memories but had short-term memory loss
...
He still remembered it 15 years later
...
Hollin’s
music class and we heard the news about 9/11, or a first kiss memory
...
Why can
even our flashbulb memories sometimes prove dead wrong? How do we accomplish
other memory feats? How can we remember things we have not thought about for
years, yet forget the name of someone we met a minute ago
...
Information Processing
- Building a memory is in some ways like my information processing in creating this
book
...
Most of it I ignore, but some things merit temporary
storage in my briefcase
...
Then we must store it
...
Then we must retrieve it once we
forget
...
First
computers encode, and then store, then retrieves information First, it translates
input (keystrokes) into an electronic language, much as the brain encodes sensory
information into neural language
...
Our memories are less
literal and more fragile than a computer’s
...
Sensory memory first, then processed into a
short-term memory bin, then encoded through rehearsal for long-term memory
...

Short-term memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the
seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or
forgotten
...
Includes knowledge, skills, and experience
...
Working memory – a newer understanding of short-term
memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
...
This lets us process images and words simultaneously,
which explains why we can talk while driving
...
Brain scans show that the frontal lobes are active
when the central executive focuses on complex thinking, and the parietal and
temporal lobe areas that help us process auditory and visual information also are
active when such information is our working memory
...
Memory (Pages 353-361)


II
...
How We Encode
- Some information is easy and you don’t have to think about it (getting to class) but
other information like novels or a friend’s new number, you need to pay attention
and try hard
...
Automatic Processing
- With little or no effort, you absorb an enormous amount of information
...
But
first, here is the definition of automatic processing – unconscious encoding of
incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and well learned
information, such as word meanings
...
”
We can do all of this with parallel processing
...
Citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE

A2
...
Effortful processing – encoding
that requires attention and conscious effort
...
The German
philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) showed this
...

Ebbinghaus was to the study of memory what Ivan Pavlov was to the study of
conditioning
...
He needed to find unfamiliar verbal material so
he made nonsense sequences of syllables and tested himself reading the sequence 8
times over then trying to recall the syllables
...
Even after we learn material, additional rehearsal
(overlearning) increases retention
...
Here are a
few phenomena
...

Information presented seconds before sleep is seldom remembered
...
Sleep learning does not occur
...

9-year experiment, three of Harry Bahrick’s family members practiced foreign
translations for a given number of times, at intervals ranging from 14 to 56 days
...
Bahrick saw a practical implication: restudying
material for comprehensive final exams, capstone review courses, and senior
examinations will enhance lifelong retention
...

Spaced study beats cramming
...
Rehears the number, wait a few seconds,
rehearse again, wait a little longer, rehearse again, and even longer and rehearse
and you will not lose the information
...
People will
remember the first and last items most of the time
...
Going around in a circle and
saying names is the same way
...
What We Encode
- We process information in three key ways – by encoding its meaning, by encoding
its image, and by mentally organizing it
...
But in each case, there are effortful strategies for enhancing memory
...
Encoding Meaning
- We usually encode the meaning of verbal information for storage and then
associate that meaning with our lives
...
We tend not to remember
things exactly as they were
...
Remembering
lecture notes rather than the lecture itself is common
...

Acoustic encoding – the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
...

Each can help
...
Comparing the three, a man flashed a word at people and asked a
question that required the word to be processed visually, acoustically, or
semantically
...
This research suggests the benefits of
rephrasing what we read and hear into meaningful terms
...
Thus the
amount remembered depends both on the time spent learning and what we do
while learning
...
If you find personal meaning, you will learn better and the

information deemed “relevant to me” is processed more deeply and remains more
accessible
...
Visual Encoding
- We struggle to remember formulas, definitions, but can remember what we wore
yesterday because mental pictures are easier to remember
...
We remember picture evoking words better than we remember
low imagery words
...
Two codes are better than one
...
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids
...
Mnemonic is the Greek word for memory
...
Other mnemonic devices involve acoustic and visual codes lie one is a
bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is
heaven, eight is a gate, nine is swine, ten is a hen
...
Bun shoe tree door hive sticks heaven gate swine hen
...


B3
...
When Bransford and Johnson’s laundry paragraph because meaningful,
we could mentally organize its sentences into a sequence
...


1
...
Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often
occurs automatically
...
This also aids our recall of unfamiliar material by
encoding the first letters of to-be-remembered words as sentences or as words
...
For example
...
It helps with remembering digits as well, when you
group a list into chunks of four digit dates
...

Donatelli has magnificent memory as well
...



2
...
When people develop expertise in an area, they
process information not only in chunks but also in hierarchies composed of a few
broad comcepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
...
Gordon Bower and his colleagues
demonstrated the benefits of hierarchical organization when they presented
random or grouped words
...
Take our chapter outlines for example; headings,
objectives, learning outcomes and test questions help us master the course
...
Memory (Pages 361-370)

III
...
Longterm memory lies dormant, waiting for cues
...


A
...
It showed people three rows of three letters for 1/20th of a second
...
But in later experiments, Sperling
sounded a high, medium, or low tome immediately after flashing the nine letters
...
We have a fleeting photographic memory called iconic
memory
...
If the tone was delayed, the iconic memory would be gone
...
Echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or
4 seconds
...
Working/Short-Term Memory
- Experiment showed that short-term memory is limited not only in duration but
also in capacity
...

Our short-term recall is slightly better for random digits than for random letters,
which sometimes have similar sounds
...
At
any given moment, we can consciously process only a very limited amount of
information
...
Long-term Memory
- Our capacity for storing long-term memories is essentially limitless
...
The total
memory capacity of computers all over the world is far less than that of a single
brain
...
Take the pi guy, Rajan Mahadevan
...







CONTEST
DESCRIPTION
RECORD
Speed Cards
Shortest time to memorize a shuffled pack of cards
33 seconds
One-hour
Most cards memorized in one hour, 52 points for every pack
1170 cards

cards
Speed
numbers
Names and
faces
Binary digits

correct, 26 points for one mistake
...

Most first and last names memorized in 15 minutes after
being shown with faces (1 point for every correctly spelled
first or last name, ½ point for every phonetically correct but
incorrectly spelled name)
Most binary digits memorized in 30 minutes when presented
in rows of 30 digits
...
5 names

3705



D
...
Karl Lashley provided
evidence that memories don’t reside in single, specific spots
...
The rats knew it
...
But what is memory trace? Ralph
Gerard trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food, then lowered their body
temperature until the electrical activity in the brain ceased
...
Recently, the search for the physical basis of memory – for information
incarnated in matter – has focused on the synapses
...
Synaptic Changes
- Neuroscientists are expanding the search for the location of memories by exploring
changes within and between single neurons
...
Eric Kandel and James
Schwartz observed changes in the sending neurons of the California sea snail,
Aplysia
...
The snail releases more serotonin at certain synapses, which
become more efficient at transmitting signals
...
Believed to be a
neural basis for learning and memory
...

One approach is developing drugs that boost production of the protein CREB, which
can switch genes off or on
...
With
repeated neural firing, a nerve cell’s genes produce synapse-strengthening proteins,
enabling long-term memories to form
...
After LTP occurs, passing an electric current through
the brain won’t disrupt old memories, but it will wipe out recent memories
...
Stress Hormones and Memory
- The stress hormones that humans and animals produce when excited or stressed
make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that

something important has happened
...
Arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while
disrupting memory for neural events around the same time
...
Sometimes these memories
are “burned in”
...
Some drugs try to do
that to blunt intrusive memories
...
There are limits to stress-enhanced
remembering
...

Older memories may be blocked
...


D3
...
Amnesia – the loss of memory
...
Although incapable of recalling new facts or anything they had
done recently, Jimmie and others with similar conditions can learn
...
But they all do these things with no awareness of having learned them
...

Implicit memory – retention independent of conscious recollection
...
If repeatedly shown a word (perfume), they will not recall having seen
it before
...
They
retain their new learning but do not explicitly recall it
...
The Hippocampus
- One way to discover how memory works is to study its malfunctions
...

Hippocampus – the neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps
process explicit memories for storage
...
Damage to the left or right hippocampus produces different
results
...

Right hippocampus damage reveals trouble remembering visual designs and
locations
...
The longer the hippocampus and its pathway to the cortex are left intact after
training, the smaller the memory deficit
...
Our
memories are not in one place, but stored in many brain regions as we encode, store
and retrieve information
...
The Cerebellum

- Implicit memories require fewer connections among cortical storage areas, so
people with hippocampal damage may retain those memories
...
By
methodically disruption the function of different pathways, in the cortex and
cerebellum of rabbits, the rabbits will also fail to learn conditioned eye-blink
response when the cerebellum is temporarily deactivated during training
...
The reactions and skills w learned during
infancy reach into our future
...




































VIIII
...
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
- To remember an event requires not only getting it in (encoding) and retaining it
(storage), but also getting it out
...
Recall – a measure of memory in
which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank
test
...
Recognizing or
relearning indicates memory
...

Example, one may recognize a face in a yearbook picture, but may not recall their
old classmates in the picture
...
If you forget what
you learned, relearning can be much quicker than learning the first time
...
Tests of recognition and time spent relearning reveal that we
remember more than we can recall
...
Retrieval Cues
- The process of retrieving a memory follows a similar principle to that of tracing a
pathway to a spider in a web, because memories are held in storage by a web of
associations, each piece of information interconnected with others
...
The more
retrieval cues you have, the better chance of finding the memory
...
BIV) but the best come from
associations over time
...

Priming – the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
...
It is described as the wakening of associations,
which are activated/primed without our awareness
...


A1
...
Your memory is better in the place you experienced said memory
because of retrieval cues
...
Déjà vu – that eerie sense that “I’ve
experienced this before
...


A2
...
Emotions can
prime us to recall its associated events
...
Depressed people remember things that happened
when they were depressed
...
Memories are mood-congruent
...
Knowing this connection, we shouldn’t be surprised that currently

depressed people recall their parents as rejecting, punitive, and guilt-promoting,
where as formerly depressed people describe their parents much as do those who
have never suffered depression
...
Moods help us to better
interpret others’ behaviors
...
In chapter 16, the process can maintain a vicious cycle of depression
...
Memory (Pages 375-381)


V
...
The ability to forget is helpful
...
Daniel Schacter enumerates seven ways our memories fail us – the seven
sins of memory he calls them:
Three sins of forgetting: 1) Absent-mindedness (inattention to details produces
encoding failure)
...
3) Blocking (inaccessibility
of stored information, tip of the tongue)
...
5)
Suggestibility (the lingering effects of misinformation)
...

One sin of intrusion: 7) Persistence (unwanted memories)
...
Encoding Failure
- Can’t remember what you don’t encode because the information doesn’t enter the
long-term memory
...
This explains age-related
memory decline
...
Why? Because the details are not
meaningful or essential for distinguishing
...
Without effort, many memories never form
...
Storage Decay
- Ebbinghaus learned more lists and graphed a forgetting curve
...
Harry Bahrick examined
the forgetting curve for Spanish vocabulary learned in school
...
What they remembered from then, they
brought with them into the future 25+years later
...
Memories also fade because of the
accumulation of other learning that disrupts retrieval
...
Retrieval Failure
- Forgotten events are like books you can’t find in the library because some weren’t
encoded and some were forgotten by stored memory decay
...
Retrieval cues can help with memory Adults’ occasional memory
failures are retrieval problems
...


C1
...

Proactive interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new
information
...
Retroactive interference – the disruptive effect of new
learning on the recall of old information
...
You can minimize
retroactive interference by reducing the number of interfering events by going for a
walk or to sleep shortly after learning new information
...
Interference is an
important cause of forgetting
...
Knowing Latin may help us learn French – a
phenomenon called positive transfer
...


C2
...
To remember our past is often to
revise it
...

This was Sigmund Freud’s concept, and he proposed that our memory systems do
indeed self-censor painful information
...
Repression was central to Freud’s
psychology and became part of psychology’s lore
...
We learned a few pages back
that strong emotions strengthen memories
...
Memory (Pages 382-390)

VI
...
By filtering information and filling in
missing pieces, your schema for something directed your memory construction
...
Misinformation and Imagination Effects
- Elizabeth Loftus has shown how eyewitnesses similarly reconstruct their
memories when questioned
...
The repeated result is a misinformation
effect – incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event
...
Even imagining
nonexistent actions and events can create false memories
...
Thus the more vividly people can imagine things, the
more likely they are to inflate their imaginations into memories
...
Same with people who have reconstructed memories of childhood
abduction
...
A magician acted like it
was levitating)
...
Nobody is immune to memory
construction
...


B
...
When we
encode memories, we distribute different aspects of them to different parts of the
brain
...
Source amnesia – attributing
to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or
imagined
...
) Source amnesia, along with the
misinformation effect is at heart of many false memories
...
Discerning True and False Memories
- Because memory is reconstruction as well as reproduction, we can’t be sure
whether a memory is real by how real it feels, so we must discern what is true and
what is false
...
Memories we
derive from experience have more detail than memories we derive from
imagination
...
False memories created by suggested misinformation and
misattributed sources may feel as real as true memories and may be very persistent
...
The more confident

and consistent eyewitnesses are the most persuasive but not always the most
accurate
...
Police have to ask questions framed by their own
understandings of the event so they can get a more accurate description from the
witnesses
...
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
- If memories can be sincere, yet sincerely wrong, might children’s recollections of
sexual abuse be prone to err? Who is most often victimized – abused children whose
recollections are disbelieved or falsely accused adults whose reputations are
ruined? If questioned in neutral words they understand, children often accurately
recall what happened and who did it
...


E
...

Are clinicians who have guided people in “recovering” memories of childhood abuse
triggering false or uncovering the truth? The research on source amnesia and the
misinformation effect are very powerful
...
Those
committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting
wrongly accused adults agree on the following: Injustice happens, Incest and other
sexual abuse happen, forgetting happens, recovered memories are commonplace,
memories ”recovered” under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially
unreliable
...

Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting
...
The most common response to a traumatic
experience is not banishment of the experience into the unconscious
...












X
...
In this chapter, we encounter further
instances of these who images of the human condition – the rational and the
irrational
...


I
...
Cognition –
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating
...


A
...
Take chairs for example, there are high
chairs, plastic chairs, wooden chairs, electric chairs, everything
...
k
...
concept, of “chair
...
We organize our concepts
into hierarchies
...
More often, we form concepts through
developing prototypes – a mental image or best example of a category
...
A robin and a goose both satisfy the definition of a bird, yet people agree
more that a robin is a bird, more than they do a goose
...
Move away
from prototypes, and categories may have fuzzy boundaries
...
Solving Problems
- One tribute to our rationality: concept form and use
...
Some problems are solved through trial and error, others are solved
through an algorithm – a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees
solving a particular problem
...
We can often solve problems with simple strategies
called heuristics – a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments
and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than
algorithms
...
We can all recall occasions when we puzzled over a
problem and then suddenly, the puzzle pieces fell together and we perceived a
solution
...
Mark Jung-Beeman, John Kounios, and

Edward Bowden have identified brain activity associated with flashes of insight
...
It
provides a sense of satisfaction
...
Obstacles to Problem Solving
- Two cognitive tendencies – conformation bias and fixation – often lead us astray in
solving problems
...
Confirmation Bias
- Our eagerness to search for information that confirms our ideas is a major obstacle
to our problem
...
Such experiments reveal that we seek evidence
verifying our ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them
...
Ordinary people evade facts, become inconsistent, or
systematically defend themselves against the threat of new information relevant to
the issue
...


2
...
Fixation – the inability to see a
problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving
...
Why? Because fixation, that’s why
...
Mental set – a tendency
to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in
the past
...
Example o-t-t-f-f what’s next? S(ix)s(even)- e(ight)
...
(These are the months of the year)
...
A
person may ransack the house looking for a screwdriver, when a dime could turn a
screw
...


C
...
How do they usually arrive at their decisions? If you ask, they are
likely to tell you… they do it mostly by the seat of their pants
...
Using and Misusing Heuristics

- Those mental shortcuts we call heuristics often do help us make reasonable seatof-the-pants decisions
...
To
gain an idea of how heuristics determine our intuitive judgments – and how they
occasionally even lead the smartest people into dumb decisions – consider two
heuristics identified by cognitive psychologist Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman:
representativeness and availability
...
The Representative Heuristic
- To judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent particular
prototypes is to use the representativeness heuristics – judging the likelihood of
things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes;
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
...
Is he a trucker or a professor? He represents a professor more
...
It influences many of
our daily decisions, by intuitively comparing the likelihood of something with our
mental representation of that category
...
The Availability Heuristic
- The availability heuristic operates when we base our judgments on how mentally
available information is
...
Why does it lead
us astray? Anything that increases the ease of our retrieving information can
increase its perceived availability
...
” These include how recently you heard about it, its distinctiveness, and its
concreteness
...
The errors aren’t always harmless
...
The availability heuristic affects social judgments as well
...
Overconfidence
- Our use of intuitive heuristics when forming judgments, our eagerness to confirm
the beliefs we already hold, and our knack for explaining away failures combine to
create overconfidence – the tendency to be more confident than correct – to
overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
...
The questions had this format: “I feel 98% certain
that the population of New Zealand is more than _______ but less than ________
...
Warning people against overconfidence doesn’t much
reduce overconfidence
...
Failing to appreciate one’s potential for error when making
military, economic, or political judgments can have devastating consequences, but
so can a lack of self-confidence
...



C3
...
The information is the
same and the effect is now
...
Consider how the framing
effect influences economic and business decisions
...
Our judgments can flip-flop so dramatically, it’s startling
...


D
...
But would logic help
us escape the bias inflicted by our beliefs? It helps but we still find it easier to accept
conclusions that agree with our opinions
...


D1
...
This
fuels social conflict
...
The more we come to appreciate why
our beliefs might be true, the more tightly we cling to them
...


D2
...
We might conclude
that our heads are indeed filled with straw
...
” Intuition is huge
...
It’s born of experience
...
Intuition is recognition
...
” Our gut intuitions
are terrific at some things like reading emotions, but not at others like assessing
risks
...



II
...

Noam Chomsky asserted that when we study human language, we are approaching

what some might call the ‘human essence,’ the qualities of might that are, so far as
we know, unique to humans
...
”

A
...
We need three building
blocks
...

B-a-t are three phonemes that make the sound “bat
...
Sign language has phoneme-like building blocks
defined by hand shapes and movements
...
The second block is
morpheme – in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or
part of a word (such as a prefix)
...
We develop semantics – the set of rules by which we derive meaning from
morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
...
In all 6000 human languages,
the grammar is intricately complex
...


B
...
The average secondary
school graduate knows 60,000 words
...
Before children can add, they create their own original and grammatically
appropriate sentences
...


B1
...
Babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds like
the sound ee with an open mouth with the corners pulled back at just 4 months of
age, and marks the beginning of babies’ receptive language, their ability to
comprehend speech
...
Deaf infants who observe deaf
parents signing begin to babble more with their hands
...
Phoneme sounds outside the infant’s native tongue begin to disappear,
such as the ability to discriminate those sounds at around 10 months old
...
It becomes hard to discriminate Japanese phonemes within
speech
...

Around the first birthday, most children enter the one-word stage – the stage in
speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in
single words
...
Then they enter the two-

word stage – beginning around age 2, the stage in speech development during which
a child speaks mostly two-word statements
...
It follows the
rules of syntax; The English speaking child typically says adjectives before nouns
like big doggy rather than doggy big
...


B2
...
The
controversy parallels the debate we noted in chapter 8 over the behaviorist view of
the malleable organism versus the view that each organism comes biologically
prepared to learn certain associations
...


1
...
Thus,
Skinner argued, babies learn to talk in many of the same ways animals learn to peck
keys and press bars
...


2
...
He said that surely, a
Martian scientist observing children in a single-language community would
conclude that language is almost entirely inborn
...
Children do learn their
environment’s language
...
Moreover, many of the
errors young children make result from overgeneralizing logical grammatical rules,
such as adding –ed to make the past tense
...
Language
development will naturally occur, given adequate nurture; it just “happens to the
child
...

There are no conceivable ways to power a communication system
...
As we hear language, the switches get set for the language we are to learn
...
It is as if we are born with the hardware and an
operating system for language, and our linguistic experiences write the software
...
Cognitive Scientists: Statistical Learning and Critical Periods
- Human infants display a remarkable ability to learn statistical aspects of human
speech
...
Others have

found infants as young as 6 months able to similarly segment speech
...
Chomsky would say that once
the grammar switches are thrown during a child’s developing years, mastering
another grammar becomes more difficult
...
As a flower’s growth will be
stunted without nourishment, so will children become linguistically stunted if
isolated from language during the critical period for acquisition
...
Deaf
children with hearing-speaking parents do not experience language during the early
years
...
When a young brain does to learn any language, its
language learning capacity never fully develops
...
Once again, we see biology and experience
working together
...
Thinking and Language (Pages 418-422)

III
...
Do ideas come first and we wait for the words to name them? Or to
words conceive thoughts?

A
...
Linguistic determinism – Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the
way we think
...
But to those who speak two
dissimilar language, it seems obvious that a person thinks differently in different
languages
...
Ross, Xun, and Wilson
demonstrated this by inviting China-born, bilingual students to describe themselves
in English or Chinese
...
In Chinese, they were typically Chinese (more agreement
with Chinese values and roughly equal positive and negative self-statements and
moods)
...

-Learn a language and you learn about a culture
...
Given the subtle influence of
words on thinking, we do well to choose our words carefully
...

-To expand a language is to expand the ability to think
...
It is difficult to construct abstract ideas
without language
...
They have done it in sign
language and it had great benefits for deaf people
...
Bilingual advantage: bilingual children who
learn to inhibit one language while using their other language are also better able to
inhibit their attention to irrelevant information
...
Some argue that
bilingual education programs are expensive, ineffective, and detrimental to nonEnglish speaking children’s assimilation into their English based cultures
...
They
drop out less frequently and attain higher levels of academic achievement and
English proficiency
...
Thinking in Images
- Words convey ideas
...
You place yourself there mentally and visualize
turning the knob, but you don’t think, “I am turning the knob right
...
Pianist
Liu Chi Kung showed the value of thinking in images
...
Soon
after he was released 7 years later, he was back on tour
...
Mental practice has become a standard
part of training for Olympic athletes
...

- Tennessee won the national championship game in overtime, thanks to part of
their trash-talk mental practices
...

Imagine you will look at gradespeed and see an A in the test category, and imagine
your happiness
...
It is better to spend your fantasy time planning how to get somewhere
than to dwell on the imagined destination
...
Thinking light with no language is “one-fourth the effort of
regular thinking
...
Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thought
...
Misjudgments are common and yet have disastrous
consequences
...

























X
...
Animal Thinking and Language
- Where do animals fit in the scheme of things? Do they think or even exhibit
language?

A
...
They form concepts and
display insight, especially chimps who can use things as tools to get what they want
...
They have been recorded to use 39
customs in which tools are used
...
They are the chimp
equivalent of cultural diversity
...
Does this
indicates that primates are capable of self-recognition and of comprehending others’
perceptions? Many think so
...


B
...
They cry, bark, cough, click, and wail
...
Rico, a border collie knows 200 items by name
and can fetch any one of them
...
The Case of the Apes
- The greatest challenge to humanity’s claim to be the only language-using species
has come from reports of apes that “talk” with people
...
Some were taught sign language
...

Later that grew to 181 signs
...
” It is no wonder that they can speak a little
and sign
...
For both humans and apes, communication entails gestures
...
” Lana can type, and didn’t know that orange
was a fruit and color
...
” Ape language is a little lower than human but we do share similarities
...
But Can Apes Really Talk?
- Here are some arguments of skeptics: 1) apes gain their limited vocabularies with
great difficulty, unlike children who do it with ease
...
3) Apes can use
meaningful symbols but their syntax is different and they can’t distinguish the
difference between “you tickle” and “tickle you
...
4) Presented with ambiguous information,
people tend to see what they want or expect to see
...

- Chimps do not develop language says Steven Pinker, “but that is no shame on
them; humans would surely do no better if trained to hoot and shriek like chimps, to
perform the waggle-dance of the bee, or any of the other wonderful feats in nature’s
talent show
...
Chimps don’t have our facility for language, but their
abilities to think and communicate, regardless of whether or not it is considered
talking, is impressive
...
“Baby?” “Baby dead, baby gone, baby
finished
...
Two weeks later, a foster baby
came
...
” Washoe was excited, “Baby, my Baby
...
Washoe broke the ice by signing, “Come
baby” and cuddling Loulis
...

































XI
...
3)
Intelligence war: Does each of us have an inborn general mental capacity
(intelligence), and can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?

I
...
When we refer to someone’s IQ (intelligence quotient) as if it were a
fixed and objectively real trait like height, we commit a reasoning error called
reification – viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing
...
”
Intelligence is a socially constructed concept
...
Two controversies remain: 1: Is intelligence a single overall
ability or several specific abilities? 2: With the tools neuroscience now offers, can we
locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

A
...
Others are great artists
who can’t figure out a simple problem
...
General Intelligence
- Psychologists study how individual abilities relate to one another
...
Example: people with a large vocabulary also do well on paragraph
comprehension which helps define a verbal intelligence factor
...
Charles Spearman helped
develop factor analysis and believed there is a g (general intelligence) factor
...
Some abilities stand out, but those who score high on
one factor also score higher than average on other factors
...

Thurstone was an opponent of Spearman
...
He didn’t rank on a single scale of general aptitude
...
Maybe mental abilities liken to physical abilities
...
Satoshi Kanazawa argues that general intelligence evolved as a form of
intelligence that helps people solve novel problems
...


A2
...


1
...
He notes that some with mental disorders are spectacular at some things
but terrible at others
...
They score poorly on IQ tests but are brilliant at other things
...

Gardner argues that we don’t have an intelligence but multiple intelligences
...
A general
intelligence score is like the overall rating of a city which doesn’t give information
about schools, streets, or nightlife
...
Those with mental disadvantages have lesser physical abilities
...
The less the IQ, the shorter the life span
...
Gardner counters that all forms of intelligence have some intrinsic
value
...


2
...
2: Creative intelligence
demonstrated in reactive adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas
...

- Sternberg and Wagner’s test of practical managerial intelligence measures
whether test-takers know how to write effective memos, how to motivate people,
when to delegate tasks and responsibilities, how to read people, and how to
promote their own careers
...
Sternberg
and Wagner agree that multiple abilities can contribute to life success, and differing
varieties of giftedness add spice to life and challenges for education
...
Emotional Intelligence
- Nancy Cantor and John Kihlstrom came up with social intelligence – the know-how
involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
...
5-year olds who had most accurately discerned
emotions became 9-year olds who easily made friends, were cooperative, and who
effectively managed their emotions
...

The ability to perceive emotions, understand emotions, manage emotions, and use
emotions are assessed in an emotional intelligence test
...
They are
emotionally smart in careers, marriage, and parenting situations where
academically smart people sometimes fail
...
Some scholars are concerned with the concept of emotional
intelligence, saying it stretches intelligence too far
...
Academic aptitude tapped by
intelligence tests is indeed important, yet competence in everyday living requires
much that traditional intelligence tests don’t measure
...
Intelligence and Creativity
- Pierre de Fermat challenged mathematicians of his day to match his solutions to
various number theory problems including his last theorem
...
Nobody could for ages
...
He was extremely happy
...
Studies of intelligence and creativity
suggest that a certain level of aptitude in necessary but not sufficient for creativity
...
Convergent (single answer)
thinking tested by intelligence tests differ from those supporting the divergent
thinking that imagines multiple possible answers to a problem
...


1
...


2
...


3
...


4
...


5
...


D
...
Brain Anatomy
- The smarter you are, the bigger brain you have sometimes
...
Causes of a bigger brain include
genes, nutrition, stimulation, and other things or a combination of these things
...

People differ in neural plasticity – their ability during childhood and adolescence to
adapt and grow neural connections in response to their environment
...
Richard Haier’s research team correlated
intelligence scores from 47 adults with scans that measured their volume of gray
matter (neural bodies) and white matter (axons and dendrites) in various brain
regions
...
Einstein’s brain was 15% larger in the
parietal lobe’s lower region, the center for mathematical and special information
...
Brain Function
- Even if the modest correlations between brain anatomy and intelligence prove
reliable, they only begin to explain intelligence differences
...
During IQ tests, a
frontal lobe area above the outer edge of the eyebrows becomes really active, in the
left brain for verbal questions and on both sides for spatial questions
...


1
...
4 to +
...
A typical experiment flashes an incomplete
stimulus, then another image that overrides the lingering afterimage of the
incomplete stimulus
...
Those who perceive quickly tend to score higher on intelligence
tests, particularly on tests based on perceptual rather than verbal problem solving
...
Neurological Speed

- DO the quicker processing and perceptions of highly intelligent people reflect
greater neural processing speed? Repeated studies have found that their brain
waves register a simple stimulus more quickly with greater complexity
...
We don’t know why fast reactions on simple tasks should
predict intelligence test performance, though it’s suspected by Nathan Brody that
they reflect one’s core information processing ability
...


II
...
Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure
...


A
...


1
...
The children
needed to be separated by how smart they were so Binet and Theodore Simon set
out to measure a child’s mental age – a measure of intelligence test performance by
Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of
performance
...
They thought of mental aptitude as a general capacity that
showed up in various ways
...
He
hoped the tests would be used to improve children’s education but feared it would
be used to label children and limit their opportunities
...
Lewis Terman: The Innate IQ
- Binet might have been dismayed to discover that the test he designed as a practical
guide for identifying slow learners in need of special help would soon be used as a
numerical measure of inherited intelligence
...
The test is called the
Stanford-Binet – the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford
University) of Binet’s original intelligence test
...

IQ=(mental age / chronological age) X 100
...
Most
current intelligence tests no longer compute an IQ because it doesn’t work well for

an adult
...
100 is average and 2/3 score between 85 and 115
...
Modern Tests of Mental Abilities
- Aptitude test – a test designed to predict a person’s future performance’ aptitude is
the capacity to learn
...

A U
...
SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test, formally called a Scholastic Aptitude Test)
for related with +
...
Exams covering what you have learned are achievement tests
...
Similarly, your
aptitudes for learning and test-taking influence your grades on achievement tests
...
Wechsler
also developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for school age
children and still later a test for preschool children
...
Principles of Test Construction
- To be widely accepted, psychological tests must meet three criteria: they msut be
standardized, reliable, and valid
...
Standardization
- A basis is needed for comparing it to others’ performances on a test
...
Standardization – defining
meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested
standardization group
...
Normal curve –
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical
and psychological attributes
...
To keep the average score near 100, Stanford-Binet
and Wechsler scales are periodically restandardized
...
The average person’s intelligence test score 80 years ago was –
by today’s standard – only a 76! This has been observed in 20 countries
...
The Flynn effect’s cause
is a mystery, but regardless of what explains the rising intelligence test scores, the
phenomenon counters one concern of some hereditarians – that the higher
twentieth-century birthrates among those with lower scores would shove human
intelligence scores downward
...
Reliability
- Reliability – the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the
consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on
retesting
...
The higher the
correlation between test-retest or the split-half scores, the higher the test’s
reliability
...
9 which
is high, meaning when retested, people got close to the first score
...
Validity
- High reliability doesn’t ensure a test’s validity – the extent to which a test
measures or predicts what it is supposed to
...
Content validity – the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of
interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks)
...
For example, aptitude tests
must have predictive validity – the success with which a test predicts the behavior it
is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test
scores and the criterion behavior
...
General aptitude
tests are not as predictive as they are reliable
...
5
...


III
...


A
...
Intelligence tests before age three predict future aptitudes only
minimally
...
After age
7, intelligence scores stabilize
...


B
...
The two groups should differ
noticeably, and they do
...
The Low Extreme
At one extreme of the normal curve are those who score less than 70
...
Only 1% meets these criteria with males outnumbering females by 50%
...
There has been a major
shift from great care at home for mentally retarded to institutions with very little

care
...
But now, the pendulum swung back to
normalization
...


B2
...
They were all well-adjusted, healthy, and unusually successful
academically
...
Jean Piaget was a whiz kid
...
This is bad
...
Those implicitly labeled
ungifted can be influenced to become so
...































IV
...
Genetic Influences


B
...
Early Intervention Effects


B2
...
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores


C1
...
Gender Similarities and Differences


D
...
Two Meanings of Bias


D2
...
Motivation and Work (Pages 470-480)

- In this chapter we will explore how motives arise from the interplay between
nature (the physiological push) and nurture (the cognitive and cultural pulls)
...
Perspectives on Motivation
- motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
...
The fourth perspective,
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, describes how some motives are, if
unsatisfied, more basic and compelling than others
...
Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology
- Rather than explaining human behaviors, the early instinct theorists were simply
naming them
...
To name a behavior is not to explain it
...
Examples
include birdes imprinting, salmon swimming up stream, and humans rooting reflex
as infants
...


B
...
The physiological aim of drive reduction
is homeostasis – a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the
regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a
particular level
...
When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven
...
How is it pushed by our inborn physiological needs
and pulled by incentives in the environment?

C
...
Well-fed animals leave shelter
to explore, in absence of any need-based drive
...


D
...
Order: physiological needs (need to satisfy hunger and thirst), safety

needs (need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe,
secure, and stable), belongingness and love needs (need to love and be loved, to
belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation), esteem needs
(need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others), self-actualization needs (needs to live up to
one’s fullest and unique potential)
...
People starve
themselves to make a political statement
...
Self-esteem
matters in most individualist nations
...


II
...
They were obsessed with food
...
The Physiology of Hunger
- Pangs of an empty stomach triggers hunger
...
Hunger persists in those with their stomachs removed
...


A1
...
When its level is low, we feel hunger
...
Insulin decreases glucose in blood,
making us feel hungry
...
The lateral hypothalamus stimulates hunger
...
The LH turns out orexin, a
hormone triggered by the reduction of blood glucose
...
The ventromedial hypothalamus depresses hunger
...
Ghrelin is a hunger arousing hormone secreted by an
empty stomach
...
PPY is a digestive hormone that suppresses appetite
...
When the body
falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act
to restore the lost weight
...
If
people gain weight, the opposite happens
...
The Psychology of Hunger
- Memory plays a big role in hunger
...



B1
...
Carbs help boost levels of serotonin, which has calming
effects
...
Neophobia – avoiding unfamiliar foods
...
Eating Disorders
- Anorexia nervosa – an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually
adolescent females) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight,
yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
...

Bulimia nervosa – an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating,
usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive
exercise
...
Eating
disorders don’t provide a telltale sign of childhood sexual abuse
...
Genetics
may also influence susceptibility to disorders
...
Western cultures place more emphasis on thin images
...
Motivation and Work (Pages 481-498)


III
...
It’s nature’s clever way of making people procreate, allowing us
to survive
...
Kinsey wrote a book on sexual practices and
published it in the 1940s
...
Most women and all men masturbated
...

Given the range of sex drives and the variety of sexual behaviors, our own sexual
interests probably fall well within the definition of “normal
...
The Physiology of Sex
- Like hunger, sexual arousal depends on the interplay of internal and external
stimuli
...


A1
...
With the help of 382 females and 312 male
volunteers, consisting only of people able and willing to display arousal and orgasm
while being observed in a laboratory – gynecologist-obstrician William Masters and
his collaborator Virginia Johnson monitored or filmed more than 10,000 sexual
cycles
...
During the
excitement phase, the genital areas become engorged with blood
...
Penis becomes fully engorged and some fluid may appear at its tip
...

Masters and Johnson observed muscle contractions all over the body during orgasm;
these were accompanied by increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates
...
It reinforces
intercourse and increases retention of deposited sperm
...
When both men and women wrote descriptions of orgasms,
experts couldn’t distinguish between the sexes
...
Those who
are in love who undergo f MRI scans while looking at photos of the one he or se
loves or a stranger, the response to their partners are similar in both men and
women
...
During this
resolution phase, the male enters a refractory period – a resting period after
orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
...
Sexual disorders – a problem that consistently
impairs sexual arousal or functioning
...
For men, this includes premature ejaculation, and erectile dysfunction
...
Most women relate It to their
emotional relationship with their partner during sex
...


A2
...
Estrogen – a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by
females than by males
...
Male hormone levels are more constant
...
Both males and
females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of
the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics
during puberty
...
One study invited
partnered women who weren’t at risk for pregnancy to keep a diary of their sexual
activity
...
If a
woman’s natural testosterone level drops, her sexual interest may wane
...

Testosterone levels in men have little effect on sex drive
...
In the 1600s and 1700s, prepubertal boys
were castrated to keep their soprano voices for the opera
...
Sex offenders take a drug called Depo-Provera, which reduces testosterone
levels to that of a prepubescent boy
...


B
...
However, both depend on internal physiological
factors, and are influenced by external and imagined stimuli, as well as cultural
expectations
...
External Stimuli
- Men become aroused when they see, hear, or read erotic material
...
People may find
arousal pleasing or disturbing
...
It used to be in the 20s, skirts that
went to your knees were erotic
...
Sexually
explicit material can have adverse effects
...

Erotic images also lead relationships to be undervalued because of false perceptions
and expectations
...
Imagined Stimuli
- The brain is our most significant sex organ
...
Injured people who have no genital sensation can feel sexual

desire because they can imagine
...
Some people are
sexually aroused by fantasies
...
95%
of men and women say they’ve had fantasies
...


C
...
Yet sexual expression varies dramatically with time and culture
...
Half of highschoolers
report having sex as do 42% of Canadian 16 year olds
...
Many of them are
impoverished
...
Teen Pregnancy
- American teens have lower rates of intercourse compared with European teens,
but they also have lower rates of contraceptive use and thus higher rates of teen
pregnancy and abortion
...
Ignorance
- half of sexually active Canadian teen girls have mistaken ideas about birth control
methods
...
Guilt related to sexual activity
- 72% of 12-17 year old girls who have had sex, regretted it
...


3
...
Teens who talk freely with friend or parents are more likely to
use contraceptives
...
Alcohol use
- Sexually active teens are typically alcohol using teens
...


5
...
S
...
Nearly all involve unmarried
partners, and half have had no prior relationships or have just met, and few
communicate about birth control, or STIs
...
Sexually Transmitted Infections
- Unprotected sex led to an increase in rates of STIs (aka std)
...
Condoms offer no protection against certain skin-

to-skin STIs – notably human papilloma virus (leads to genital cancers)
...


1
...


2
...


3
...


4
...
Does it
promote personal competence, control, and responsibility, as well as futureoriented thinking? Or does it reduce the opportunity for unprotected sex? Pendulum
of sexual values has swung from 1800 European eroticism to Victorian era 1800s to
flapper era of 1920s to family values 1950s and now 21st century, declining teen
birth rates since 1991 and virgins outnumbering nonvirgins 15-19 years old
...
Sexual Orientation
- sexual orientation – an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s
own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
...
Many homosexual people aren’t aware of same-sex
attraction until puberty, and many don’t think of themselves as gay or lesbian until
age 20
...
Sexual Orientation Statistics
...
Gallup survey of 2002
estimated that 21% of men and 22% of women are homosexual
...
12 out of
7076 Dutch adults reported being actively bisexual
...
Numbers don’t decide
issues of human rights
...
They struggle with it
...
It isn’t a choice
...
Men’s lesser sexual variability is
apparent in many ways
...
Gay and lesbians suffer elevated rates of depression and suicide
attempts because of bullying, harassment, and discrimination
...


1
...
Does homosexuality involve a fear or hatred of people of the
other gender, leading individuals to direct sexual desires towards members of their
own sex? NO
...
As children, were many homosexuals molested, seduced, or otherwise
sexually victimized by an adult homosexual? NO
...
Homosexual people do appear more often in certain
populations
...
Odds of
homosexuality are 3% among first sons, first to 4% on second sons, 5% for third
sons
...
Reason is unclear
...
If there are environmental factors that
influence sexual orientation, we don’t know what they are
...
Same-sex attraction in Animals
There are several hundred species in which same-sex relations have been observed
...


3
...
Larger in heterosexual men than
in women and homosexual men
...
LeVay believes it more likely that brain anatomy influences sexual
orientation
...


4
...
Homosexuality
does appear to run in families
...
Experimenters
have managed to create female fruit flies that during courtship act like males who
are lesbian and males that act like females
...
Why do gay genes exist if there is no
evolutionary reason? Don’t know
...
Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation
- There are elevated rates of homosexual orientation in identical and fraternal twins,
which suggest that not just shared genetics but also a shared prenatal environment

may be a factor
...
Gay men have
fingerprint patterns rather like those of heterosexual women
...
Lesbians also have some maletypical traits, like their cochlea and hearing system develop in a way that is
intermediate between those of heterosexual females and heterosexual males,
another prenatal influence
...
Some
scientists still remain skeptical
...

Nature more than nurture
...


E
...
But can the study of
sexual behavior and what motivates it ever be free of values? Sex education
separated from the context of human values may also give some students the idea
that sex is simply a recreational activity
...
Se is a socially significant act
...
The Need to Belong
- We are what Aristotle called the social animal
...
Aiding Survival
Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate
...
To be “wretched” literally
means to be without kin nearby
...


2
...
We think about
relationships and wanting love and being friends with others
...
The satisfaction of self-esteem and relatedness-belonging needs were the
top two contributors to the peak moment
...
Ubuntu is a South African word for human bonds that
define us all
...
Acting to Increase Social Acceptance
- When we feel included, accepted, and loved by those important to us, our selfesteem rises high
...
To win friendship and esteem, we
monitor our behavior, hoping to create the right impressions
...

This can be through gangs, ethnic rivalries, and fanatic nationalism unfortunately
...
Maintaining Relationships
- Familiarity breeds liking, not contempt
...
Attachments
can keep people in abusive relationships
...
Attachment is a strong thing
...

When something threatens or dissolves our social ties, negative emotions
overwhelm us
...
The Pain of Ostracism
- Sometimes the need to belong is denied
...
People respond to social ostracism
with depressed moods, initial efforts to restore their acceptance, and then
withdrawal
...
If rejected, people
sometimes turn nasty
...
Fortifying Health
- People who have friends tend to be happier
...
Human beings
are fundamentally and pervasively motivated by a need to belong
...
Motivation at Work



A
...
Harnessing Strengths


2
...
Structured Interviews


4
...
Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement


1
...
Managing Well


1
...
Setting Specific, Challenging Goals


3
...
Emotion (Pages 513-523)
- More often than any other creature, we express fear, anger, sadness, joy, and love
...
And we’ll take a close look at fear, anger and
happiness
...
Theories of Emotion
- Emotion – A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal,
(2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
...
The first is old: does your physiological arousal precede or
follow your emotional experience? And the second controversy concerns the
interaction between thinking and feeling: Does cognition always precede emotion?
- According to William James, “We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we
strike, afraid because we tremble
...
James-Lange theory – the theory that our experience of emotion is our
awareness of our physiological response to emotion-arousing stimuli
...
He thought the body’s responses weren’t
distinct enough to evoke the different emotions
...
Cannon-Bard theory – the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus
simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective
experience of emotion
...
Two-factor theory – Schachter-Singer’s theory that to experience emotion
one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
...
Yet like Cannon and Bard, Schachter and
Singer also believed that emotions are physiologically similar
...

- Does physiological arousal always preceded emotional experience?
Are different emotions marked by distinct physiological responses?
What is the connection between what we think and how we feel?

II
...
Physical responses
coincide with emotions
...
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System
- As your autonomic nervous system mobilizes for action, your body also responds
for action in less noticeable ways
...
With blood sugar driven into
large muscles, running becomes easier
...
Body’s response to danger prepares for fight or flight
...
Sympathetic division directs adrenal
glans to release epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increases heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood sugar levels
...


A1
...
The level of arousal for optimal performance varies for
different tasks
...
More difficult tasks means optimal arousal is lower
...



B
...


C
...
Observers watching
fearful face show more activity in the amygdala area compared to those with angry
faces
...
Negative emotions
are expressed by the right prefrontal cortex
...
The nucleus accumbens is a neural
pathway that increases the dopamine levels
...
Most researchers
agree with Cannon and Bard that our experienced emotions also involve cognition
...


D
...
Cognition Can Define Emotion
- Sometimes our arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the
next event
...
They go into a
waiting room to observe euphoric or irritated people and observe them as their
heart rate increases, body flush and breathing more rapidly
...
If told the
drug produced no effects, the response is either euphoric or testy
...
Polygraph – a machine, commonly used in attempts

to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying
emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes)
...
Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion
- Emotional responses aren’t always defined
...
This
process triggers a rapid reaction outside of conscious awareness, and the reaction is
too fast to process
...
The amygdala sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it
receives back, making it easier for our feelings to hijack our thinking that for our
thinking to rule our feelings
...
Emotions arise when we appraise an event as beneficial
or harmful to our wellbeing
...
Highly emotional people are intense partly because of their
interpretations by personalizing events and being connected to them and
generalizing experiences by blowing things out of proportion
...





























XIII
...
Expressed Emotion
- To decipher emotions, read body language, listen to tone of voice, and study faces
...
Does this nonverbal language
vary with culture, or is it universal? And do our expressions influence our
experienced emotions?

A
...
Westerners think a firm
handshake immediately conveys and outgoing, expressive personality
...
Gazing into each others’ eyes causes a tingle of attraction and affection
...
But it comes at a cost
...

- We are good at detecting nonverbal threats and detecting anger in voices
...

Fleeting changes in expression also help us read a face
...
When shown a series of faces that morphed from
sadness or fear to anger, physically abused children are much quicker than other
children to see anger
...
Their perceptions become sensitively attuned to
glimmers of danger signals that non-abused children miss
...
Detecting and Computing Emotion
- Is a women’s intuition superior to men’s? Yes
...

Women have surpassed men in discerning whether a male-female couple is a
genuine romantic or a posed phony couple
...

They have greater emotional responsiveness in both positive and negative
situations
...
Women are also far more likely than
men to describe themselves as empathetic
...
Females are more likely to
express empathy – to cry and report distress when observing someone in distress
...
Men surpassed
women in conveying their anger
...
Detecting and Computing Emotion
- Hart-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to
conceal
...
When raised and pulled together it signals
fear
...
Most find it difficult to
detect signs of deceit
...
Even
trained human lie detectors (CIA) only were right 73% of the time
...
Our brains are amazing detectors of
subtle expressions
...
Other more specific
interpretations are risky
...


D
...
For example, Chinese literature people clapped hands in worry or
disappointment and laughed “Ho-Ho” to express anger and stuck out their tongues
to show surprise
...
k
...
Facial expressions contain some nonverbal accents that provide clues to
one’s culture
...
It’s actually adaptive for us
to interpret faces in particular contexts because people judge an anger face in a
frightening situation as afraid and a fearful face set in a painful situation as pained
...
There are various display rules throughout the world
...


E
...
Fake an emotion until you make
it
...
If manipulated into furrowing brows, people
feel sadder while looking at sad photos
...
Holding a pen in your teeth makes you more
easily amused
...


IV
...
Some thing pride and love should be included but
others say that any other emotion is a combination of some of the 10
...
To cut through that, psychologists ask people to describe
their emotions
...
low) or valence (pleasant,
positive vs
...




A
...
It can kill us literally, and can also be contagious
...
Fear is usually adaptive,
an alarm system preparing our bodies to flee from danger
...


A1
...
Example; babies learn from falling over how to be more
careful than walking
...


A2
...

Why? Because fear taught our ancestors to fear spiders and snakes and falling off
cliffs and through evolution, we have become afraid of those things
...
Humans also
learn fears, which later trigger amygdala fear pathways
...
Some, with phobias, have intense fears of specific objects
...
Fear is also genetic, proven by twin studies that show
twins’ level of fearfulness or fearlessness are similar to the other twin
...
Anger
- When we see an insulting or frustrating event, and we believe that event/action to
be done on purpose with no good intention, we can be easily angered
...
In
collectivist, this isn’t seen
...
In
psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy
(through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
...
Expressing anger can be temporarily
calming if it doesn’t leave us feeling guilty or anxious
...
When anger outbursts calm us temporarily, they can become
habit forming
...
Anger
communicates strength and competence
...

Forgiveness helps release anger and can calm the body
...
Happiness
- Feel-good, do-good phenomenon – people’s tendency to be helpful when already in
a good mood
...
But

researchers are becoming increasingly interested in subjective well-being –
happiness or satisfaction with life
...

Positive psychology is on the rise
...
The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs
- Influences on temporary and moods and long-term satisfaction show that stressful
events trigger bad moods, but gloom nearly always lifts the next day
...
Over long-run, emotional ups and downs balance
...
Wealth ad Well-Being
- Emotional impact of dramatically positive evens dissipates sooner than we might
expect
...
If we are rich in a rich neighborhood, we want more
...
If we are poor in a well-off
neighborhood, we are unhappy
...
Economic growth in affluent countries has provided no apparent boost to
morale or social well-being
...


C3
...
Happiness is relative
...
Happiness and Prior Experience
- The adaptation-level phenomenon – our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of
lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
...
We keep on wanting
more
...
We can’t create a permanent social paradise
...


2
...
Relative deprivation – the perception that one is worse off relative to
those with whom one compares oneself
...
Count your blessings
...
”


C4
...
Things that don’t predict happiness: Age, gender, education levels,
parenthood, and physical attractiveness
...
Take control of your time
...
Seek work and leisure that engage
your skills
...
Give your body the sleep it wants
...
Focus beyond self
...
Nurture your spiritual
self
...
Psychological Disorders (Pages 640-649)

- No culture is free of depression and schizophrenia
...
Mental disorders have accounted for 15
...
That is a higher rate than those who
die of cancer
...
Perspectives on Psychological Disorders
- How should we define psychological disorders? How should we understand
disorders? How should we classify psychological disorders?

A
...

To be considered disordered, deviant behavior must also cause distress
...


B
...
People would “treat” these people by beating them, burning them, or
castrating them, removing teeth, intestines, etc
...


B1
...

Medical model – the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be
diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured
...
This perspective has gained credibility
...
The Biopsychosocial approach
- All behavior comes from the interaction of nature and nurture
...
Psychological disorders are different and more
prevalent in different areas of the world
...
Susto, marked by severe anxiety, restlessness, and a
fear of black magic, is found in Latin America
...
These problems are manifested in a particular culture
...
Classifying Psychological Disorders
- Classification creates order
...
“Schizophrenia” provides a handy shorthand for describing a complex
disorder
...


DSM-IV - The APA’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth
Edition), a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
...
” This manual was developed in
coordination with the 10th edition of the WHO’s International Classification of
Diseases (ICD) covering medical and psychological disorders
...
DSM-IV defines a
diagnostic process and 16 clinical syndromes
...


D
...

Once we label a person, we view that person differently
...
It’s better to study the roots of
symptoms
...
” Apart from this complaint and giving false names and occupations, they
answered questions truthfully
...
Until being
released, the patients exhibited no further symptoms, yet clinicians were able to
“discover” the causes of their disorders
...
This proves that labels affect how we perceive
people
...
When she asked if the room was still available, the answer
was nearly always yes
...
Stereotypes linger and are reinforced
by the media’s extreme images of psychological disorders portraying murderers and
mad men
...
They can serve as selffulfilling prophecies
...
Psychological Disorders (Pages 649-658)


II
...
Anxiety disorders –
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or
maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
...


A
...
The
symptoms of this disorder are commonplace; their persistence is not
...
Those who have this are tense and jittery and constantly
worried
...
” This disorder goes hand in
hand with depression often times, and it can lead to ulcers and high blood pressure
...
1 in 75 have this disorder and
they experience panic attacks
...

-Agoraphobia is the fear or avoidance of situations in which escape might be difficult
or help unavailable when panic strikes
...
Phobias
- Phobia – an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance
of a specific object or situation
...
Social phobias are the intense
fear of being scrutinized by others
...
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
- As with generalized anxiety and phobias, we can see aspects of our own behavior
in OCD
...
These behaviors
cross the fine line between normality and disorder when they become so persistent
that they interfere with everyday living and cause the person distress
...
It’s terrible
...


D
...
Post-traumatic stress disorder – an anxiety disorder
characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety,
and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
...
The more frequent and severe the assault experiences are, the more
adverse the long-term outcomes tend to be
...
Veterans, survivors, sexualassault victims, and 2/3 of prostitutes experience PTSD
...
This is learned
helplessness on the part of those who have repeatedly suffered abuse
...
S
...
Combat stress more than
doubled a veteran’s risk of alcohol abuse, depression, or anxiety
...

- Dose-response relationship is experienced in civilians as well
...
Some
psychologists believe that PTSD is overdiagnosed due to a broadening definition of
trauma
...
Post-traumatic growth can
occur, where instead of breaking a person down, a person exhibits strength in the
face of danger and grows psychologically
...
Explaining Anxiety Disorders
- Anxiety is both a feeling and a cognition – a doubt-laden appraisal of one’s safety or
social skill
...


E1
...
Fear Conditioning
- When bad events happen unpredictably and uncontrollably, anxiety often
develops
...
Anxiety swells with any
reminder of trauma in PTSD
...
Stimulus
generalization occurs when a person for example fears heights after a fall and later
develops a fear of flying without having ever flown
...


2
...



E2
...
This

perspective explains why we learn some fears more readily and why some
individuals are more vulnerable
...
Natural Selection
- We are biologically predisposed to fear things that were threats to our ancestors
...


2
...

Temperament and fearfulness can run in families
...
Twins carry similar phobias
...
The Brain
- Overarousal of certain areas of the brain can cause disorders
...
Fear learning can
traumatize the brain by creating fear circuits within the amygdala
...
































XVI
...
Mood Disorders
- Mood disorders – psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes
...


A
...
It slows us down, defuses aggression, and
restrains risk taking
...
Between feeling blue and major depression
is a condition called dysthymic disorder – a down-in-the-dumps mood that fills most
of the day, nearly every day, for two years of more
...


B
...
However, some rebound with mania – a
mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
...
Bipolar disorder – a mood disorder in which the
person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the
overexcited state of mania
...
Bipolar disorder is common among
artists and poets
...


C
...
Peter Lewinsohn and his
colleagues summarized the facts that any theory of depression must explain
...

Many behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression (inactive and
unmotivated feelings, low levels of expectations)
...
Depression is widespread (this
suggests causes must be widespread too)
...
Compared with men, women are nearly
twice as vulnerable to major depression (more vulnerable to disorders involving
internalized states, like depression, anxiety, and inhibited sexual desire
...
Men get really mad and much more mad
than women)
...
Most major depressive episodes self-terminate (therapy speeds
recovery, but the plague of depression comes, and a few weeks or months later, it
usually goes)
...
Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships
often precede depression (stress causes depression)
...
With each new generation,

the rate of depression is increasing, and the disorder is striking earlier and now
often in the late teens (this is true world wide)
...
The Biological Perspective
- Depression is a whole-body disorder, involving genetic predispositions,
biochemical imbalances, negative thoughts, and melancholy mood
...
Genetic Influences
- Mood disorders run in families and you have a greater risk of mood disorders if
your family has them
...
There is a search for the genes that put people at
risk for depression
...


2
...

Smoking and depression coincide
...
Some
of the genes under scrutiny provide codes for neurotransmitter systems
...
There are also lower levels of omega-3 fatty
acid in one’s diet if one is depressed
...
Those with depression have frontal lobes that are 7%
smaller than normal
...


C2
...


1
...
Gender differences in
uncontrollable stress explain why women are nearly twice as vulnerable to
depression
...
If you blame yourself, you
may feel stupid and depressed
...

- Depressed people explain bad events in terms that are stable, global, and internal
...
Peter Barnett and Ian Gotlib note that
self-defeating beliefs, negative attributions, and self-blame coincide with a
depressed mood and are indicators of depression, but do they cause depression?

2
...
Women tend
to over think which explains why they are more likely to have depression
...

This, in turn, fuels (1) negative experiences such as rejection
...
Psychological Disorders (Pages 669-677)

IV
...
It strikes as young people are maturing into
adulthood, men more severely affected and have earlier onset than women
...
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
- schizophrenia – a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and
delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
...
Disorganized Thinking
- Delusions – false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany
psychotic disorders
...
These disorganized thoughts result from a breakdownin
selective attention
...
Thus, irrelevant stimuli can
easily distract
...
Disturbed Perceptions
- A person with schizophrenia may have hallucinations (sensory experiences
without sensory stimulation) that are usually auditory and give orders or insult
...


3
...
Some lapse into flat
affect, a zombielike state of apparent apathy
...
Those who exhibit catatonia may remain motionless for hours and
then become agitated
...
Subtypes of Schizophrenia
- Schizophrenia is a cluster of disorders
...
Those with negative symptoms have toneless
voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies
...
Some schizophrenia emerges from a
long history of social inadequacy
...
When it’s a slow developing process (called chronic
or process schizophrenia), recovery is doubtful
...
The outlook is better for those with positive symptoms (drug
therapy helps better)
...

Many and varied symptoms
Withdrawal, after hallucinations and
delusions have disappeared
...
Understanding Schizophrenia
- Schizophrenia is not only the most dreaded and researched psychological
disorders
...
It’s a disease of the brain exhibited in symptoms of the mind
...
Brain Abnormalities






















V
...
Antisocial Personality Disorder


B
...
Rates of Psychological Disorders








































XVII
...
Psychotherapy – an emotionally charged,
confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from
psychological difficulties
...
Half of all psychotherapists have described
themselves as taking an eclectic approach – an approach to psychotherapy that,
depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
...


I
...


A
...
(Psychoanalysis was
the first theory)
...
Freud
believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences – and
the therapist’s interpretations of them – released previously repressed feelings,
allowing the patient to gain self-insight
...
Aims
- Know thyself is an aim
...


A1
...
Free association is saying whatever comes to mind from
moment to moment
...
The
analyst wants to make you aware of your resistances and interpret them
...

Freud also looked at latent content of dreams (underlying but censored meaning)
...


A2
...
The goal of the therapist is to enable insight by
looking for common, recurring themes, especially in relationships
...


B
...
These therapists aim to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in
self-awareness and self-acceptance
...
Client-centered therapy – a humanistic therapy,
developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active
listening within a genuine, accepting, empathetic environment to facilitate clients’
growth
...
The therapist listens, without
judging or interpreting, and refrains from directing the client toward certain
insights, a strategy labeled nondirective therapy
...
Active listening – empathetic listening in
which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies; a feature of Rogers’ client-centered
therapy
...
Given a nonjudgmental, grace-filled
environment that provides unconditional positive regard, people may accept even
their worst traits and feel valued and whole
...


C
...
Behavior therapy – therapy that applies learning
principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
...


C1
...

Counterconditioning – a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses
to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors based on classical conditioning
...
Behavior therapists have used
counterconditioning techniques to combat claustrophobic fear
...
Exposure therapies
- The most widely used method of behavior therapy consist of exposure therapies –
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by
exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid
...
Commonly used to treat phobias
...
Then the therapist asks you to imaging a mildly

anxiety-arousing situation
...

This is repeated until no anxiety occurs
...


2
...
This is different from aversive
conditioning – a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state
(such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
...
Aversive
conditioning works sometimes in the short run
...


C2
...
Token economy – an operant conditioning
procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired
behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
...
The second is ethical: is it right for one to control another’s behavior?

D
...
Cognitive therapy – therapy that teaches people new, more
adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts
intervene between events and our emotional reactions
...


1
...
Depressed people don’t
exhibit the self-serving bias common in non-depressed people
...
To change such negative self-talk, Donald Meichenbaum has offered stress
inoculation training, teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful
situations
...
It seeks to make people aware of their irrational negative
thinking, to replace it with new ways of thinking, and to practice the more positive
approach in everyday settings
...
Group and Family Therapies
- Group therapy does not provide the same degree of therapist involvement with
each client; however, it saves therapists’ time and clients’ money – and is no less
effective than individual therapy
...
Family therapy – therapy that treats the family as a
system
...
We struggle to differentiate ourselves
from our families, but we also need to connect with them emotionally
...
Therapy heals relationships and mobilizes family resources by
helping members discover the role they play in the family
...
Therapy (Pages 700-720)

II
...
Would
including psychotherapy in health insurance plans lead to “endless payments for
dubious benefits of marginal problems”?

A
...


A1
...
People often enter therapy in a crisis
...
Clients may need to believe the
therapy was worth the effort
...
Clients generally speak kindly of their therapists
...
Clinicians’ Perceptions
- The problem is that clients justify entering psychotherapy by emphasizing their
unhappiness, justify leaving therapy by emphasizing their well-being, and stay in
touch only if satisfied
...


Thinking Critically About: “Regressing” From Unusual to Usual
- Perceptions of therapy’s effectiveness are vulnerable to inflation from the placebo
effect, and regression toward the mean – the tendency for extremes of unusual
scores to fall back (regress) toward their average
...


A3
...

However, he also said that two thirds with or without psychotherapy improved
noticeably, and that time was a great healer
...
Those not
undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to
improve
...
The Relative Effectiveness of Different Therapies
- Even though no single type of therapy is the most effective overall, some therapies
are great for specific disorders
...

C
...



C1
...

However, what is therapeutic is the combination of exposure therapy (reliving
traumatic memories in a safe context) and a robust placebo effect
...
Light Exposure Therapy
- SAD (seasonal affective disorder) is counteracted through giving people a timed
daily dose of intense light
...


D
...


D1
...
Therapy offers
hope
...
Meta-analysis suggests
that one reason therapies help is because they offer hope
...
A New Perspective
-Therapy lets one look at things through a different light and a fresh perspective
...
An Empathetic, Trusting, Caring Relationship
-Therapists are empathetic and they earn clients’ trust and respect
...


E
...


Close-Up: A Consumer’s Guide to Psychotherapists
- Here are the APA trouble signs: hopelessness, depression, self-destructive
behavior, fears, mood shifts, compulsions, suicidal thoughts, and sexual difficulties
...




III
...



A
...
Psychopharmacology – the study of the effects of drugs on
mind and behavior
...


A1
...
This includes chlorpromazine
...
Tardive dyskinesia –
involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible
neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2
dopamine receptors
...
Antianxiety Drugs
- Antianxiety agents, such as Xanax or Ativan, depress CNS activity
...


A3
...
Selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors (SSRIs) slow
the synaptic vacuuming up of serotonin (Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil)
...
Increased serotonin promotes
neurogenesis (brain cell birth)
...
Mood-Stabilizing Medications
- Mood-stabilizing drugs like lithium can help those with bipolar disorder
...
Brain Stimulation
B1
...

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) – a biomedical therapy for severely depressed
patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized
patient
...
Side effects include memory
loss, but no brain damage
...
It reduced suicidal thoughts but
patients are vulnerable to relapse
...
Alternatives to ECT
- Depressed moods also seem to improve when repeated pulses surge through a
magnetic coil held close to a person’s skull
...
There are no side effects
...



C
...
Psychosurgery – surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an
effort to change behavior
...
The procedure cut the nerves that connected the frontal lobes to
the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
...


IV
...
If one is fostered in an accepting and nurturing environment,
they are more likely to be self-confident and aware, and grow individually
...
































Lillian Hazen
01/08/2013
Chapter Two: Thinking Like and Economist
-Economist’s language consists of supply, demand, elasticity, comparative advantage,
consumer surplus, and deadweight loss
...

I
...
The scientific method is used
...
The Scientific Method: Observation, Theory, and More Observation
- The relation between theory and observation occurs in the field of economics
...
Experiments are difficult in economics because they
have to deal with whatever data the world happens to give them
...
History provides opportunity to learn
...
The Role of Assumptions
-Economists make assumptions like physicists for the same reason: assumptions can
simplify the complex world and make it easier to understand
...

Which assumptions do we make? The ones that are relevant enough to the problem at
hand to affect a large change
...
Economic Models
- Economic models are most often diagrams and equations used to examine various
economic issues throughout the book and in day to day economic life so that our
understanding of economics may improve
...
Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram
- This diagram is a schematic representation of the organization of the economy
...
In the markets
for goods and services, households are buyers and firms are sellers
...
The circular-flow
diagram offers a simple way of organizing all the economic transactions that occur
between households and firms in the economy
...
The outer loop of the circular-flow
diagram represents the corresponding flow of dollars
...
Our Second Model: The Production Possibilities Frontier
- One of the simplest models using the tools of mathematics to illustrate some basic
economic ideas is the ppf
...
Assume that the economy only produces two goods
...
The two endpoints are
the extreme possibilities (1000 cars produced and no computers or 3000 computers and
no cars
...
A point on the
ppf can represent that
...
There is also
an inefficient way to do things, which yields another point
...
The cost of something is what you give up to get it, aka, the
opportunity cost
...

f
...
Micro is the study of how households and firms
make decisions and how they interact in specific markets
...

II
...
When they are
trying to help improve it, they are policy advisers
...
Positive Versus Normative Analysis
- Policy advisors make a claim about change they would like to see in the world, and how
it ought to be
...
Normative statements are prescriptive
...

b
...
Truman and other presidents relied on economists’ advice
...

Economists at the dep of treasury design tax policy
...

Those at the dep of justice enforce antitrust laws
...


Lillian Hazen
01/13/2013
Chapter Three: Interdependence and the Gains from Trade
- Almost every simple action you do is influenced by trade
...
You rely on people from around the
world to provide goods and services that you enjoy because of trade
...
What do people gain when
they trade with one another/ Why do people choose to become interdependent?
I
...
Trade
lets both the farmer and rancher enjoy both
...
They can both trade what
they specialize in so they can benefit from what each person does best
...
Is there still a reason to trade?
a
...
If the rancher and the farmer can grow/raise both meat and
potatoes but have varying efficiencies then whatever time they spend making potatoes
will replace the time they could have spent making meat
...
The production possibilities frontier shows all
the possible outcomes of the trade-offs
...
These graphs tell us what
the rancher and farmer can do, but not their decision
...

b
...
If each
specializes more in his/her own area of expertise and they trade, both of them will
benefit
...

II
...
Who
can produce potatoes at lower cost?
a
...
Absolute advantage – the ability to produce a good using fewer
inputs than another producer
...
The absolute advantage goes to the person who
requires less time to produce a unit of either good
...
Opportunity Cost and Comparative Advantage
- Rather than comparing inputs required, compare the opportunity costs – whatever must
be given up to obtain some item
...
Comparative advantage is used
when describing the opportunity cost of two producers
...
Because the
opportunity cost of one good is the inverse of the opportunity cost of the other, if a
person’s opportunity cost of one good is relatively high, the opportunity cost of the other
good must be relatively low
...

c
...
When each person specializes in producing the good for which
he or she has a comparative advantage, total production in the economy rises and makes
everybody better off
...
Comparative advantage establishes
that there are gains from specialization and trade
...
Trade can benefit everyone in society because it allows people to
specialize in activities in which they have a comparative advantage
...
Applications of Comparative Advantage
- The principle of comparative advantage explains interdependence and the gains from
trade
...

a
...
Should he just because he can? Opportunity cost
and comparative advantage can answer this
...
The opportunity cost of mowing
the lawn is $10,000 and Forrest’s opportunity cost is $20
...

Forrest has a comparative advantage because he has a lower opportunity cost
...
Should the United States Trade with Other Countries?
- Many of the goods that Americans enjoy are traded, and many of the things we make in
the US are sent for consumption by other countries
...
Exports – goods produced domestically and sold abroad
...
Through specialization and
trade, both countries can have more of both goods
...
International trade is not like war in that some
countries win and others lose
...

IV
...

Questions may arise, but the answer isn’t so obvious and will be explained better in the
next chapter
...
This chapter considers how buyers and sellers
behave and how they interact with one another and how supply and demand determine
prices and how prices allocate the economy’s scarce resources
...
Markets and Competition
- Supply and demand refer to the behavior of people as they interact with one another in
competitive markets
...
What is a Market?
- A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service
...
Markets can be highly organized
like agricultural commodities or unorganized like an auction
...

b
...
A competitive market is a market in
which there are many buyers and many sellers so that each has a negligible impact on the
market price
...
We assume that markets are perfectly competitive, and has these two
characteristic
...
Buyers and sellers are said to be price takers because they can’t influence the price
determined by market
...
Some markets only have one seller who sets the price, and
that seller is called a monopoly
...
Demand
- We begin our study of markets by examining the behaviors of buyers
...

a
...
If the price of ice cream rose to $20 a scoop, you would buy less ice
cream
...
If it fell to $0
...
Because the quantity demanded falls as the price rises and rises as the price falls,
the quantity demanded is negatively related to the price, and this is true for most goods in
the economy
...
If ice cream is free, Catherine eats 12 cones
per month
...
50 a cone, Catherine buys 10 a month, and the pattern goes on until the
price reaches $3
...
This table is a demand schedule
...
The downward-sloping line relating price and quantity demanded is
called the demand curve
...


b
...
To analyze how
markets work, we need to determine the market demand, the sum of all the individual
demands for a particular good or service
...
The market demand curve shows how the total quantity
demanded of a good varies as the price of the good varies, while all the other factors that
affect how much consumers want to buy are held constant
...
Shifts in the Demand Curve
- If something happens to alter the quantity demanded at any given price, the demand
curve shifts
...

1
...
Normal good is a good for which, ceteris parabis,
an increase in income leads to an increase in demand
...
Inferior goods are a good for which, ceteris parabis, an increase in income leads to
a decrease in demand
...

2
...
Substitutes are two goods for which and increase in the price of one
good leads to an increase in the demand for the other, like sugar vs
...
Take peanut

butter and jelly
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...
When a variable
changes, the curve shifts
...
By contrast, income, the prices of related
goods, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers are not measured on either axis, so
a change in one of those variables shifts the demand curve
...
The policy makers can
also raise the price of cigarettes by changing the tax
...


Lillian Hazen
01/23/2013
Chapter Three: The Market Forces of Supply and Demand (71-83)
III
...

a
...
Price
plays a special role in our analysis
...
The quantity
supplied is positively related to the price of the good because quantity supplied rises as
the price rises/ falls as the price falls
...
The supply curve
slopes upward because, other things equal, a higher price means a greater quantity
supplied
...

b
...
At any price, Ben’s supply schedule tells us the quantity
of ice cream Ben supplies, and the same goes for Jerry
...
As with demand curves, we sum the individual supply curves
horizontally to obtain the market supply curve
...
Shifts in the Supply Curve
- Shifts in the supply curve can happen
...
Anything that decreases quantity supplied is called decrease
in supply
...
(NITE is an acronym for these determinants of supply)
...
Number of sellers
- Market supply depends on all those factors that influence the supply of individual
sellers, including the number of sellers
...
Input Prices
- When the price of one or more of these inputs rises, producing a product is less
profitable
...

3
...

4
...


IV
...

a
...

- When supply and demand are graphed on the same graph, they form an X
...
Equilibrium – a situation in which the market
price has reached the level at which the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded
...
Equilibrium price – the price that
balances the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded
...
At the equilibrium price, the quantity of the good that buyers are
willing and able to buy exactly balances the quantity that sellers are willing and able to
sell
...
The actions of buyers and sellers naturally move
markets toward the equilibrium
...
This is also called excess supply
...
This is also called excess
demand
...
Then there is no upward or downward pressure on the price but the price varies
from place to place
...

b
...
Here are the
three steps: First we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve, the demand curve,
or both curves
...
Third, we
use the supply-and-demand diagram to compare the initial and the new equilibrium,
which shows how the shift affects the equilibrium price and quantity
...
Example: A Change in Demand
- How does temperature affect the market for ice cream? The three questions come into
play here
...
The supply
curve is unchanged
...
The increase in demand raises the equilibrium price and quantity
...
Shifts in Curves versus Movements along Curves
- Supply refers to the position of the supply curve, whereas the quantity supplied refers to
the amount suppliers wish to sell
...
Only NITE can change the supply curve
...
Example: A Change in Supply
- a natural disaster ruins sugarcane and drives up the price of sugar
...
The curve shifts left because the amount

willingly supplied is reduced
...

2
...
Both curves shift, the
demand curve shifts right and the supply curve shifts left, and the equilibrium price rises,
while the demand either increases substantially while supply falls just a little making the
equilibrium quantity rise, or the supply falls substantially while demand rises just a little
and the equilibrium quantity falls
...
Summary
- Whenever an event shifts the supply or demand curve, you can use these tools to predict
how the event will alter the amount sold in equilibrium and the price at which the good is
sold
...
Conclusion: How Prices Allocate Resources
- One of the ten principles of economics is that markets are usually a good way to
organize economic activity
...
Market economies harness forces of supply and demand to serve
that end
...

Prices are the mechanism for rationing scarce resources, and they determine who
produces each good and how much is produced
...
If market economies are guided by an
invisible hand, then the price system is the baton that the invisible hand uses to conduct
the economic orchestra
...
The more I sell, the higher my income and
standard of living
...
What do I do?
Supply and demand and elasticity will answer the questions
...
The Elasticity of Demand
- Consumers usually buy more of a good when its price is lower, when their incomes are
higher, when the prices of substitutes for the good are higher, or when the prices of the
complements of the good are lower
...
Elasticity – a measure of the responsiveness to quantity demanded or
quantity supplied to one of its determinants
...
The Price Elasticity of Demand and Its Determinants
- The law of demand states that a fall in prices of a good raises the quantity demanded
...
Demand for a good is said
to be elastic if the quantity demanded responds substantially to changes in the price
...
Elasticity reflects the many economic, social, and psychological
forces that shape consumer tastes
...

1
...

2
...
If you
can afford to go without, it’s a luxury and will be affected by your decision
...

3
...
Narrowly defined markets tend to have more elastic demand than broadly defined
markets
...
Time Horizon
- Long-term goods have more elastic demand than short-term goods
...


b
...
Suppose that a 10% increase in price of ice cream cone causes the amount of ice
cream you buy to drop by 20%
...
The change in the
quantity demanded is proportionally twice as large as the change in the price
...

c
...
Price elasticity of demand is ((delta Q)/(Q
average))/((Delta P)/(P average))
...
The Variety of Demand Curves
- Economists classify demand curves according to their elasticity
...
Because the price elasticity of demand measures how much quantity demanded
responds to changes in the price, it is related to the slope of the demand curve
...
The steeper the slope, the smaller the
price elasticity of demand
...
Perfectly elastic is a
horizontal curve
...


Perfectly
Elastic
= Infinity

e
...
How does it change as one moves along

the demand curve? It depends on the price elasticity of demand
...
If it is elastic, an increase in the
price causes a decrease in total revenue
...

When demand is inelastic (less than 1), price and total revenue move in the same
direction
...

If demand is unit elastic (equal to 1), total revenue remains constant when the price
changes
...
Elasticity and Total Revenue along a Linear Demand Curve
- Although some demand curves have an elasticity that is the same along the entire curve,
this is not always the case
...
The demand curve slope would be constant
...
There is still a ratio of percent changes in the two variables
...
At points with a high price
and low quantity, the demand curve is elastic
...
Other Demand Elasticities
- In addition to the price elasticity of demand, economists use other elasticities to
describe the behavior of buyers in the market
...
The Income Elasticity of Demand
- income elasticity of demand – a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good
responds to a change in consumers’ income, computed as the percentage change in
quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income
...

Most goods are normal goods: higher income raises the quantity demanded
...
Inferior goods: higher income lowers the quantity demanded because
quantity demanded and income move in opposite directions, inferior goods have negative
income elasticities
...
Luxuries have large income elasticities
and necessities have small income elasticities
...
The Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand
- Cross-price elasticity of demand – a measure of how much the quantity demanded of
one good responds to a change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage
change in the quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in
the price of the second good
...

Whether cross-price elasticity is positive or negative depends on whether they are
substitutes r complements
...

II
...
Elasticity changes this concept from quality to
quantity
...
The Price Elasticity of Supply and Its Determinants
- The law of supply states that higher prices raise the quantity supplied
...
Supply of a good is said to be elastic if the quantity
supplied responds substantially to changes in the price
...
The price elasticity of
supply depends on the flexibility of sellers to change the amount of the good they
produce
...
In the short run, the quantity supplied is not very
responsive to the price
...

b
...

% Change in quantity supplied / % change in price
c
...
There can be zero
elasticity which is perfectly inelastic and a vertical curve
...

III
...

a
...
The curve shifts to the right
...
Does this discovery make farmers better off? The hybrid
allows farmers to produce more, but now each bushel sells for less
...
The discovery of the new hybrid lowers
the total revenue that farmers receive for the sale of their crops
...
The supply increases, the price falls,
and the farmers are worse off, but they have to adapt to stay in business at all
...
That dropped to 2% in 2004
...
S
...
Paradox
of public policy explained: certain farm programs try to help farmers by inducing them
not to plant crops on all of their land
...

b
...
They accomplished their
goal
...
Then a few years later,
OPEC did the same thing again
...
The price of oil
was $91 a barrel, while the price of gas was $3 a gallon (94
...
Yet OPEC found
it difficult to maintain a high price because of dissatisfaction and disarray among OPEC
countries
...
In 1990, the price of oil was back to where it began in 1970 and staid at the low
level throughout most of the 1990s
...
It didn’t approach the levels reached in 1981
...
In the short run, both supply and demand are inelastic because the quantity of
known oil reserves and capacity for oil extraction can’t be changed quickly, and buying
habits don’t respond immediately to changes in price
...
Consumers conserve more
...

c
...
The US
Government devotes billions of dollars each year to reduce drug flow into the country
...
They stop drugs from coming into the country, which
causes a decrease in quantity supplied
...
The prices will rise
though
...
The demand for drugs is inelastic because it’s habit
forming and because the drugs are more expensive, addicts would have to steal more to
pay for the drugs
...

IV
...
’” The tools of supply and demand allow you to analyze many of the most
important events and policies that shape the economy
...
Look at the American Revolution
...
Tax on a good
affects price and quantity sold and how the forces of supply and demand divide the
burden of tax between buyers and sellers
...
Taxes raise revenue which
comes out of someone’s pocket
...
Consumer and producer surplus allow us to make the comparison of
reduced welfare of buyers and sellers to the amount of revenue the government raises
...

I
...
When it’s levied on buyers,
the demand curve shifts downward by the size of the tax; when it’s levied on sellers, the
supply curve shifts upward by that amount
...


size pb
of pwt



tax ps

Qt

Qwt

This graph shows these effects
...
So we don’t bother showing a shift
...

A
...
The benefit received
by buyers is measured by consumer surplus – the amount buyers are willing to pay for the
good minus the amount they actually pay for it
...
T=size of tax,
Q= quantity of good sold, TTR = total tax revenue = T x Q
...


size
of

Tax
Revenue
T x Q

tax

q w/tax
This graph shows that the government’s tax revenue is represented by the rectangle
between the supply and demand curves
...
Because area equals height times width, TxQ = TTR
...
Welfare without a Tax

Pb

P1
Ps


A



B


D


F







C








E

Q2

Consumer Surplus
Producer Surplus
Tax Revenue
Total Surplus

Without Tax
A+B+C
D+E+F
None
A+B+C+D+E+F

Q1

With Tax
A
F
B+D
A+B+D+F

Change
-(B+C)
-(D+E)
+(B+D)
-(C+E) deadweight

- Without a tax, the price and quantity are found at the intersection of the supply and
demand curves
...
Similarly, the
producer surplus is D+E+F
...

2
...
Price
received by sellers lowers from P1 to Ps, so producer surplus is now only F
...
To
compute total surplus with tax, we add consumer surplus, producer surplus, and tax
revenue, so we add A+B+D+F
...
Changes in Welfare
- The tax causes consumer surplus to fall by B+C
...
Tax revenue rises by B+D
...
C+E is a
deadweight loss – the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a
tax
...

B
...
The opportunity cost of Joe’s time is $80 and the
value of a clean house to Jane is $120
...
The total surplus is $40 (they both made $20
...
Neither Jane nor Joe is better off paying the tax
...
In the end, Joe doesn’t clean
and Jane has a dirty house because it wasn’t worth it
...
Taxes cause deadweight losses because they prevent
buyers and sellers from realizing some of the gains from trade
...

II
...
The greater the elasticities of supply and demand, the greater
the deadweight loss of tax
...
So
how big are the deadweight losses of taxation? Economists disagree
...
Social security tax, Medicare tax, and federal income tax are labor taxes
...
The deadweight loss is less
straightforward to determine
...
The
people who argue that labor taxes are highly distorting believe that labor supply is more
elastic so there is a greater deadweight loss
...
Some families have second earners with discretion over
whether to do unpaid work
...
Drug trade evades taxes
...


III
...
The deadweight loss equals the area
of the triangle between supply and demand curves
...
If we triple the size of a tax, the base and height of
the triangle triple, causing the deadweight loss to rise by a factor of 9
...

He suggested that the US was on the downward-sloping side of this curve
...
The Laffer Curve captured the
imagination of Ronald Reagan, who says that High tax rates caused less work and low tax
rates caused more
...
Economists disagree

about these issues in part because there is no consensus about the size of the relevant
elasticities
...

How much revenue the government gains or loses from a tax cannot be computed just by
looking on tax rates
...

IV
...


Lillian Hazen
02/26/2013
Chapter Thirteen: The Cost of Production (267-282)
-In this chapter, we will examine firm behavior in more detail and introduce you to
industrial organization – the study of how firms’ decisions about price and quantities
depend on the market conditions they face
...
But first let’s discuss the cost of production
...

I
...
Helen buys ingredients, electronics to make the
cookies, and she hires workers
...
Total Revenue, Total Cost, and Profit
- The firm’s objective is to maximize profits
...
Contrary to total revenue, there is also total cost – the market
value of the inputs a firm uses in production
...
Helen’s objective is to maximize profits,
so how do we measure total revenue and total cost? Revenue is easy, it’s just the quantity
sold times the price the good is sold at
...
Total cost is harder to calculate though
...
Costs as Opportunity Costs
- The cost of something is what you give up to give it
...
Sometimes the cost is obvious, sometimes, it isn’t
...
However, this is different from implicit costs –
input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firm
...
Economists usually keep
track of both explicit and implicit costs, but accountants only keep track of money that
flows into and out of firms, ignoring the implicit costs
...

C
...
Helen used $300,000 of her
savings to buy the cookie factory
...
She had to give that up to own the cookie factory, making
the $15,000 the implicit opportunity costs of Helen’s business
...


D
...
But there are two types
...
This is different from what an
accountant measures, called accounting profit – total revenue minus total explicit cost
...
From an economist’s
standpoint, total revenue must cover all the opportunity costs, both explicit and implicit
...
When a firm makes + or 0 EP, stays in business
...

II
...
We assume that
the size of Helen’s factory is fixed and that Helen can vary the quantity of cookies
produced only by changing the number of workers
...

A
...


$30
30
30
30
30
30
30

$0
10
20
30
40
50
60

$30
40
50
60
70
80
90

- The production function – the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a
good and the quantity of output of that good
...

Marginal product – the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input
...
The second has a MP of 40, and the
third has a MP of 30, and the fourth has a MP of 20
...

Q of
output

# of workers

B
...
With this
information, the table shows how the number of workers hired is related to the quantity of
cookies produced and the total cost of production
...

Total
cost

Q of Output
Compare the total-cost curve to the production function
...
High production = crowded with many workers and there is diminishing
marginal product
...

III
...
Let’s
look at Thirsty Thelma’s Lemonade Stand
...

Q of
Total
Lemonade Cost

Fixed
Cost

Variable
Cost

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

$3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

$0

...
80
1
...
40
3
...
80
6/30
8
...
90
12
...
30
3
...
50
5
...
50
7
...
30
11
12
...
00

Average
Fixed
cost
------$3
...
50
1
...
75

...
50

...
38

...
30

Average
Variable
Cost
-------$0
...
40

...
60

...
80

...
00
1
...
20

Average
Total
Cost
-------$3
...
90
1
...
35
1
...
30
1
...
38
1
...
50

Marginal
Cost
$0
...
50

...
90
1
...
30
1
...
70
1
...
10

A
...
Fixed costs – costs that do not vary with the quantity
of output produced
...

Variable costs – costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced
...
The
total cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs
...
Average and Marginal Cost
- Thelma has to decide how much to produce
...
How much does it cost to make a glass? How much does
it cost to increase production by 1 glass? Average total cost – total cost divided by the
quantity of output
...
Average
fixed cost – fixed costs divided by quantity of output
...
Although average total
cost tells us the cost of the typical unit, it doesn’t answer the second question of how
much it would cost to produce another unit
...

ATC = TC/Q
MC = ΔTC/ΔQ
Average total cost tells us the cost of a typical unit of output if total cost is divided evenly
over all the units produced
...

C
...
Graph shows four curves, average total cost, average fixed cost, average
variable cost, and marginal cost
...
Rising Marginal Cost
- Thirsty Thelma’s marginal cost rises with quantity of output produced (diminishing
marginal product)
...
When
she produces more lemonade by adding workers, the marginal product of an extra worker
is low and the marginal cost is large
...
U-Shaped Average Total Cost
- Average total cost is the sum of average fixed and variable cost
...
The bottom of the U-shape occurs at the quantity that minimizes average total
cost
...

3
...

Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising
...

The higher the grade, the higher the GPA, so the higher the mc, the higher the atc
...

D
...
Actual firms are more complicated than this
...
This is
what it looks like for an average firm
...
The average-total-cost curve is Ushaped
...


MC
ATC
AVC
AFC

IV
...

A
...

ATC
S-R S

S-R M

S-R L

Quantity
Long run, firm gets to choose which short run curve it wants to use
...

B
...

Diseconomies of scale – the property whereby long-run average total cost rises as
quantity of output increases
...

Economies of scale arise because higher production levels allow specialization among
workers
...

V
...

Costs vary with quantity of output a firm produces
...
The difference in market structure also
shapes the pricing and production decisions of the firms that operate in these markets
...
Market is competitive if each buyer and seller is small compared to the size of the
market and, therefore, has little ability to influence market prices
...

I
...
As a background for this analysis, we begin by reviewing what a
competitive market is
...
The Meaning of Competition
- Competitive market (aka perfectly competitive market) – a market with many buyers
and sellers trading identical products that each buyer and seller is a price taker
...
No buyer or seller sets the price, the market does
...
Firms can freely enter or exit the market
...
The Revenue of a Competitive Firm
- A firm in a competitive market, like most other firms in the economy, tries to maximize
profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost
...
Just as the concepts of average and marginal were useful in the
preceding chapter when analyzing costs, they are also useful when analyzing revenue
...

Marginal revenue- the change in total revenue from an additional unit sold
...

II
...
We are now ready to examine how the firm maximizes profit and how that
decision leads to its supply curve
...
A Simple Example of Profit Maximization
Quantity TR
TC
Profit
MR
(TR(ΔTR/ΔQ)
TC)
0 gallons 0
3
-3
-----1
6
5
1
6
2
12
8
4
6
3
18
12
6
6
4
24
17
7
6
5
30
23
7
6
6
36
30
6
6
7
42
38
4
6
8
48
47
1
6

MC
Change in Profit
(ΔTC/ΔQ)
-----(3-5)/1 = 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

-------4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3

Smith’s farm milk
...
If the Smiths think at the margin
and make incremental adjustments to the level of production, they are naturally led to
produce the profit-maximizing quantity
...
The Marginal-Cost Curve and the Firm’s Supply Decision
-

MC
MC 1
ATC
P = MR = AR
AVC

P1=MR1 =MR2


Mc1

Q1



Q MAXIMUM Q2

For a competitive firm, the price equals the average revenue and its marginal revenue
...
At Q2, MC2 is above MR2

so reducing production increases profit
...

MR>MC, firm should increase output
...

MR=MC, profit maximizing level of output
...

C
...
Exit refers to a long-run decision to leave the market
...

Shut down if TR/Q < VC/Q
...

The competitive firm’s short-run supply curve is the portion of it’s marginal-cost curve
that lies above variable cost
...
Split Milk and Other Sunk Costs
- Sunk cost – a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recovered
...
Fixed costs are sunk in the short run, and the firm can
safely ignore these costs when deciding how much to produce if we assume that the firm
can’t recover its fixed costs by temporarily stopping production
...

E
...

- The firm exits the market if it would get from producing is less than its total costs
...

Exit if TR/Q < TC/Q
Exit if P < ATC
Enter if P > ATC
The competitive firm’s long-run supply curve is the portion of its marginal-cost curve
that lies above average total cost
...
Measuring Profit in Our Graph for the Competitive Firm
...
The Supply Curve In A Competitive Market
- Market with a fixed number of firms and market in which number of firms can change
will be evaluated
...
The Short Run: Market Supply with a Fixed Number of Firms
- Consider a market with a fixed 1000 firms
...

B
...
At the end of this process of entry and exit, firms that remain in the
market must be making zero economic profit
...
The
process of entry and exit ends only when price and average total cost are driven to
equality
...
Therefore, the long-run equilibrium of a competitive market with free
entry and exit must have firms operating at their efficient scale
...
Why Do Competitive Firms Stay in Business if they make Zero Profit?
- Profit equals total revenue minus total cost including opportunity costs of the firm (time
and money included)In the zero-profit equilibrium, the firm’s revenue must compensate
the owners for the time and money that they expend to keep their business running
...
A Shift in Demand in the short run and long run
...

Short run
...

Long run
...

E
...


- Because firms can enter and exit more easily in the long run than the short run, the long
run supply curve is typically more elastic than the short run supply curve
...
Competition occurs
when there are many firms in a market offering essentially identical products; monopoly
occurs when there is only one firm in a market
...
Firms in these industries have competitors but don’t face so much competition
that they are price takers
...

- An oligopolistic market has few sellers, meaning the actions of any one seller can have
a large impact on all the sellers
...

I
...
Economists measure a
market’s domination by a small number of firms with a statistic called the concentration
ratio: the percentage of total output in the market supplied by the four largest firms
...
This
includes markets for novels, movies, CDs, and computer games
...

Number of firms?

Many firms
1 firm
Monopoly: tap
water, cable tv

Type of products?

Few firms
Oligopoly:
tennis balls
and
cigarettes

different
Monopolistic
competition: novels
and movies

identical
Perfect
competition:
milk and
wheat

II
...
The group of oligopolists
is best off cooperating and acting like a monopolist
...

A
...
This is the simplest type of
oligopoly
...
MC equals zero, so TR fr
the two producers equals their total profit
...
Competition, Monopolies, and Cartels
- Before considering the P and Q of the water that would result from the duopoly of Jack
and Jill, lets discuss the two market structures we already understand: competition and
monopoly
...

- A monopolist would produce 60 gallons at a price of $60 a gallon
...

-What happens for the duopolists? Jack and Jill can get together and agree on the quantity
of water to product and price to charge for it
...

Cartel – a group of firms acting in unison
...
Since then, there have
been very different uses in agricultural technology, management practices,
and production and distribution systems to improve standard of living
...

b) Chickens > cattle > sheep > swine
...
Vegetarianism
isn’t always a choice
...

Sometimes it’s a religious choice
...
This varies dramatically between developed and
developing countries
...

d) Agriculture mechanization has been largely responsible for increased food
production and allowing people to turn their attention to professions other
than production agriculture
...
This mechanization leads to lower relative food cost, and
increased per-capita incomes
...

f) There are over 26 species of animals in the world meat supply of which the
lower 20 + species contribute 6
...
These include the alpaca,
llama, yak, horse, deer, elk, etc
...
Peru derives 5% of its
meat from the guinea pig
...
Though 99% of milk in USA is from cattle, the world drinks
many different types of milk which contribute protein, energy, vitamins, and
minerals
...
44% of the total land area in the USA is used
for grazing, and that supports only 40% of the cattle population
...

i) Domesticated animals (>16 billion) contribute to the well-being of 5
...


j) Animal products contribute significantly to the world’s human protein needs
and energy supply
...

k) Human health is improved via the continuing research utilizing domestic
animals
...

m) 88% of US househholds are food insecure
...

n) Waste from animals providing wool is used for fertilizer, and inedible tallow
and greases are by-products used in soaps and feeds, and gelatin is used in
foods, and collaged from hides mades sausage casings
...






3) Reproduction Lecture

4) Intro
a) Diploid and Haploid;
i) Diploid = having 2 of every type of chromosome (2n)
ii) Haploid = having 1 type of chromosome (1n)
(1) Diploid multicellular organism produces haploid gametes through
meiosis
...
Then mitosis makes you an adult so
you can become a part of the cycle again
...

b) The follicle is fluid filled swelling, contains only one oocyte, and is
surrounded by estrogen producing cells in the ovary
...
But when the new follicles form, it
switches back to estrogen
...


d) When the oocyte is released from the ovary it is released into the oviduct,
which starts with an infundibulum (cone shape at the opening of the tube
which catches the egg)
...
In the oviduct,
the fertilization occurs right after the infundibulum
...
Fetal development is in the horns
...

f) Vagina
g) External structure
i) Vulva
ii) Clitoris stimulation helps with artificial insemination
6) Reproduction in Male mammals
a) Testicles – full of seminiferous tubules, WHICH MAKE SPERM AND NOT
SEMEN
...
The cells in
between the tubules (interstitial cells) are the testosterone producing cells
known as endocrine
...
The sperm is stored there where the
mature (learn how to swim)
...

iii) The Accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, the prostate which
surrounds the urethra and sits right under the rectum and increases fluid
volume and nutrients, and this fluid is semen
...

iv) Penis comparisons
(1) Stallion penis is like human penis, in that it’s blood filled and erectile
...

(3) Bull and ram, the penis is ‘S’ shaped
...
When the ligament is relaxed, the bull
can have sex
...
The spines on cat and ferret penises induce ovulation in
females
...
They’ll do a tiny surgery on the right
side, and if it has gonads, it’s a male
...
The
infundibulum leads to the magnum which adds the albumin (egg

white), and that is followed by the isthmus which adds the inner shell
membranes, which leads to the uterus or shell gland that creates the
shell, which is followed by the vagina
...
Fertilization is
internal but incubation is external
...

7) Reproductive Seasonality – reproductive activity only occurs during a certain
season
...
Gestation is about a
year so babies will be born in spring
...
Gestation is 5 months to be born in spring
...

a) Hormones involved; Begins in hypothalamus, which produces GnRH, which
tells the body that it’s reproductive season by stimulating the pituitary gland
to produce two more hormones; FSH (follicle stimulating hormones) and LH
(luteinizing hormone)
...
LH
increases greatly causing the follicle to grow and explode
...
When follicles are growing and producing estrogen, it’s known as

the follicular phase
...
Positive
feedback cycle; Estrogen tells body to produce more LH which increases
follicle which tells body to produce more estrogen which creates the positive
feedback cycle until the follicle explodes
c) Uterine Response to ovarian hormones; Estrogen thickens the endometrium
(inner lining of the uterus) and progesterone maintains the endometrium
...
The embryo developes a membrane which produces a hormone that keeps
the corpus luteum from degenerating, which keeps the progesterone high,
which keeps the endometrium from degenerating
...

i) Behavioral estrus – when you’re in heat
...
This is triggered while progesterone rises while estrogen falls
...

ii) The corpus luteum is there is no pregnancy, degenerates and drops
progesterone for a new cycle to begin
...


iii) Embryonic nutrition
(1) Embryo – early development, neural tube forms
...

(3) Extra embryonic membrane is made
...
The next membrane is the allantois that
functions as a waste collector that transports it across the
shell/placenta
...
The
outermost membrane is called the chorion, which forms the placenta
...
The blood from the mother and the blood
from the fetus get really close to each other in the placenta, allowing
nutrients to cross
...

(1) Hormones are important in birth
...
This rise in cortisol
causes the prostaglandin chemical signal PGF2 alpha destroys the
corpus luteum and other progesterone sources, which halts
production of progesterone
...
Relaxin
increases and loosens ligaments
...
The normal is true for cows,
ewes, mares; head first with feet forward
...
Sows can produce piglets that can go
anyway they want!
(3) Approach of Parturition; animals separate from the heard and
increase activity and become restless
...

(4) Stages of parturition
(a) Cervical dilation – cervix opens wide
(b) Delivery – begins with amniotic rupture
...
If the placenta is retained, infection can occur
...

i) Sperm collection – artificial vagina for bulls and stallions, gloved hand for
dog, electro-ejaculation for boars
...

iii) Add semen extenders – advantages; control, sperm selection – maximize
superior sires
...


b) Estrus Detection; must be accurate because it signals time of ovulation,
which determines insemination timing
...

iii) From noon – 6 pm, 10% of cows show heat signs
...

v) From midnight to 6 am, 43% of cows show heat signs
...
Insemination
should occur to the end or after estrus has been expressed
...
This increases the reproductive rate of valuable females
...

ii) Embryo splitting – produces two identical offspring
...

d) Estrous synchronation – controlling or manipulating the estres cycle so all
females in a herd express estrus at the same time
...

ii) Disadvantages; temporary loss of fertility
...
Only effective if mature corpus luteum is
present, aka PGF2 alpha (destroys corpus luteum and any progesterone
producing cells)
...
It extends luteal phase
of the cycle, keeps progesterone high
...
After the first cycle some
are infertile, but only for that cycle
...

v) Combo system; PGF2 alpha and MGA – feed MGA for 14 days, skip first
cycle, Inject PGF2 alpha and in next luteal phase
...







10)“Animal Products and Domestication”
11)Animal Products

a) Uses
i) Chickens – most recently domesticated and the highest number of
domesticated
...

ii) Food; Trends in the developed world – in 1995, a single farm worker
could feed 94 people
...

(1) This affects the standard of living, which increases as the percentage
of the population that works in agriculture decreases
...
This is due to
mechanization, which increases productivity
...
9 million of
the usa works in agriculture, and the number of tractors is 4,760,000
...

(3) Ecology of Animals as Food
(a) Animals Grazing is the main use of agricultural land (2/3 of the
land)
...
But the grazing competing with the natural wildlife
(4) Non-food animal products; skin for cloth, hair for fiber, feathers for
bedding, inedible fats for soaps and glues, and gelatin
...


Everything else that isn’t used for meat is separated out through
chemical processes to make use of these byproducts
...

iii) Animal Domestication
(1) Terms;
(a) Domestication – we control the feed, the reproduction, and their
range
...

(f) Mutualism – both parties benefit, goal of domestication
...

(2) Origins of domestication Biological explanation
(a) Dogs – they are scavengers
...
This is mutualism
...
There is also the hunting based theory
...
But then
there was the drive and capture approach favored by canyon
lands
...


(c) Pre-adaptation – there are some preexisting traits that predispose
an animal for domestication
...

(d) Brief History of Domestication
(e) Dog – first species to be domesticated, and largely derived from
wolves
...
But then we found a 33,000 year old Altai Canid
skull in Asia, which showed by bone analysis that it was more dog
than wolf
...
This is where all of the domestication
came from
...

(g) Cat – domesticated first in the Fertile Crescent
...
Grain agriculture in the fertile crescent brought
rodents, and those rodents brought cats
...

They were really good for nomads because they were small
...

(i) Pigs – originally domesticated for food, tilling, truffle hunting,
point and retrieval as hunting helpers
...
Both derived from the Auroch
...

(ii) Most recent; chickens are most used and derived from the red
jungle fowl
...

v) Diploid – two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent
...
This is only in gametes (in the animal
world)
...

viii)

Homozygous – both alleles are the same
...

x) Genotype – describes allele combination as homo/heterozygous
...


b) Cellular DNA
i) Animal Cell: nucleus contains the chromosomes, where the DNA is
...

ii) DNA structure – chromosomes made of DNA and protein, made in a spiral
known as a double helix, where two strands of DNA fit together like
puzzle pieces
...
The 4 in DNA are all made of
sugar and a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
...

iii) DNA Function – code for proteins
...

(2) RNA is the same but with ribose instead of deoxyribose (single helix),
and with uracil instead of thymine
...

(ii) Transfer RNA (delivers a specific Amino Acid)
...


(3) Transcription; Occurs in the nucleus
...

That strand of complementary nucleotides is known as messenger
RNA
...
TRNA
has the amino acid which has the anticodon which bumps into the
ribosome where the mRNA lies, and if it fits, that’s the right amino
acid it will use next
...

(a) The relation between transcription, translation, and protein is one of
the top three unifying concepts in biology
...

iv) Life Cycle
(1) Cell division – zygote = 2 of every chromosome (2n, aka diploid)
...
Then certain groups of cells
specialize in a different type of cell division creating meiosis, which
produces haploid gametes
...

(2) Gamete production – in males, meiosis leads to four sperm cells for
every cell that engages in meiosis
...
In
females, meiosis only produces 1 oocyte, because the three other
products are tossed out
...

(3) Fertilization – introducing the haploid sperm to the haploid egg and
when they join together the diploid zygote is formed
...
Females have XX, and males
have XY
...
All oocytes
have an X chromosome
...

Two male sperm nuclei fused together coded for a huge placenta,
which helps with more nutrients
...

(a) Complete dominance is an assumption
...
The only way for the recessive
phenotype to show is if it is homozygous recessive
...

(c) Co-dominance – mix of both phenotypes (spotted black and white
cat)
...

(heterozygote fairs better than homozygote recessive or dominate
...
This is done in
cows to get more milk, pigs to get more back fat, etc
...
Heritability is a fraction of the phenotype that
is due to the genotype
...

ii) Selection differential – the difference between the those selected for
mating and the herd average
...
Take the selection
differential and multiply that by heritability percentage, and that is the
total genetic superiority
...

iv) Impact of Artificial Insemination – gives you total control over genetics
with access to much larger genetic differentials, leading to faster artificial
selection
...

(1) The Tandem Method (selecting for one trait at a time, it’s a
misnomer)
...
Then when you reach that target, work on weaning
weight
...
Dog ears we focus
on but forget about their brains
...
Selection must occur
in animals meeting all standards
...

(3) Selection Index Method; Rank the animals best to worst with numbers
1-5 (1 being best, 5 being worst), and the lowest overall scoring bulls
are kept for reproduction
...

(1) Intensive (brother and sister or you and your mom)
...

(a) Genetic similarity increases, which lowers diversity and increases
chance for genetic diseases
...
Example; race horse named
Impressive
...
Three bars was a horse bread
three times throughout it’s family
...

ii) Outcrossing

(1) Most common way to arrange mating in herds
...

iii) Out-breeding
(1) Breeding between two different breeds
...

(a) Cross breeding: male and female are different breeds
...

(b) Species Crossing – donkey and a mare make a mule, but that mule
can’t reproduce
...
Heterosis is when a heterozygote outperforms homozygotes
...
Growth has
medium heritability and medium heterosis
...
Artificially select for production, but not for
reproduction
...
This means roughage
animals like cows spend their days doing two things; eating and
throwing up to eat it again
...
It’s the exact opposite of
roughage
...
Fermentation goes on in a silo to make
an anaerobic environment for fermentation, which increases the
preservation value of the feed
...


(c) Because of this, you have to make sure that they get all the
nutrients they need in whatever they eat before they stop eating
...

iii) Economic concerns
(1) Feed cost is generally between 60-80% of total operating cost in an
average farm
...

b) Nutrient Classes
i) Water is the most important nutrient and this is measured by how long
you can go without it
...

(1) Watering systems have to be continuous because of this
...

(a) Grass = 90% water
(b) Silage = 60% water
(c) Hay = 10% water
(2) If you’re feeding animals hay, you have to be more intentional about
providing water
...

iii) Fats provide the highest energy per gram, but not per dollar
...


(1) Feed must have as many carbs the animal needs energy from, along
with the fat to provide the essential nutrients
...
Nitrogen is a reflection of the protein content to
back count and find out how much protein is in the feed
...
But there are some important amino acids
that aren’t made in our liver
...
Taurine is not
essential for human, but are for cats
...

(3) Ruminants don’t need protein, just grass due to the nature of their
stomach
...
Calcium and phosphorus
are not found in plants
...
This is why
salt licks are important
...
Pigs
need iron, and we give them injections of iron very soon after birth
...

vi) Vitamins are used for cell metabolism
...

(1) Water-soluble; B group, Vitamin C
...
Cats are more efficient at mobilizing their fat
reserves for long amounts of time than any other mammal
...
Vitamin D
increases calcium uptake
...
First, take out
water and leave dry feed behind
...
organic molecules
...
proteins which contain the nitrogen sources
...
The nitrogen-free extract is the energy source
...
Fat
2
...
Fiber
b
...
We aren’t
breaking it down further, but rather, we’re looking at all of these
energy contributors to later calculate the energy content and
adjust for digestibility
...
We start out with the total
amount of energy in the feed, and then find out how much energy
will actually get into the animal
...
After urinating and gas release,
metabolizable energy is left
...
Production comes second to
maintenance
...

ii) Demand for specific nutrients; chickens need a specific need for calcium
to make shells
...


18)GI Systems
a) Intro: Digestion and Absorption
i) Digestion: Mechanical and Chemical (enzymes)
...

(2) Chemical: Herbivores have microorganisms and their enzymes help
with chemical digestion
...
All increase surface
area to help with faster absorption into blood
...

(2) Omnivores eat plant and meat material
...
Horses and rabbits are
not ruminants but are still herbivores
...

(b) Then the esophagus is the transport from mouth to stomach
...
They
produce HCl, making the pH around 2, and they also produce
pepsinogen
...

Pepsinogen and HCl mix together and make pepsin, which begins
protein digestion
...
If that isn’t there, an ulcer forms
...
Once it’s activated on the
other side of the mucus layer by contact with HCl, then its
corrosive
...

(d) Stomach leads to the small intestines, which is the main attraction
...
The small intestine
lining itself, has villi which have their own enzymes which
breakdown everything else
...

Bicarbonate brings the pH back to 7 so the enzymes will work
well
...
The Gall bladder stores bile made by liver,
and squeezes the necessary amount of bile into the beginning of

the small intestines
...

(f) Absorption: the intestines are lined with villi, and those cells have
microvilli
...

(g) The cecum is the pouch where the small intestine meets the large
intestine
...

(h) The cecum leads to the large intestines
...
Any extra water not absorbed by the large
intestines will be lost
...

This process is called ruminating
...

(2) Stomach differences; the Rumen: it takes up the most bulk in a cow’s
body
...
The
microbes digest cellulose through fermentation
...
The rumen is the main sight of
digestion and absorption in ruminants
...
The three layers of the rumen are…
(a) Particles in a liquid suspension
(b) Fibrous mat of long particles

(c) Gases from the byproduct of fermentation
(3) Waste products of the microbe digestion are volatile fatty acids
(VSAs)
...

Those VFAs are absorbed by the rumen
...
Waste gases are CO2 and methane
...
The
difference is in the surface
...

(5) The third chamber is the omasum, which is this round structure that
has leaf like structure that squeezes out water, kind of like the large
intestine
...
” It
has pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid
...
There is an esophageal groove between
the rumen and the reticulum
...
This goes away in adults
...
getting food back on up the
esophagus
...
That moves the esophagus back to
the top where the gases are, and eructation occurs (burping)
...

(c) Nutrient processing
(i) Energy: main source of energy is VFA’s used for milk fat
production, and energy glucose production
...
NPN: Non protein
nitrogen like urea gets cycled back into the rumen to feed the
microbes
...

(2) Horses and Rabbits
(a) They have a huge cecum and large intestines
...
Cellulose gets broken down in the cecum and large
intestine by microbial fermentation
...
VFAs are absorbed in colon
and cecum
...
They have a crop, an enlargement of the esophagus,
which is used for storage
...
After that, there is the gizzard,
between the proventriculus and the small intestine
...
The bulk of the digestion and
absorption is still done in the small intestines
...

(c) Epithelial
(i) Tight adhesion to neighboring cell
...
, are all examples of
connective tissue
...
Between them are extracellular matrixes, and for most
of these, the extracellular matrix gives connective tissue the

properties they have
...

(2) Organs
(a) Liver, heart, etc
...


(iv)

Storage of calcium and phosphorus
...
It’s like two circuts that share the same pumping
organ
...
The oxygen gets used and then
it’s returned to the right side of the heart again
...
Those lead to
capillaries with super thin walls
...
Those capillaries drain into

veins
...

(e) Endocrine system
(i) Produce hormones, which are chemical signals distributed by
the blood
...

2) Growth and Development
a) Definitions
i) Growth: increase in body weight, size, and/or increasing cell number
...

ii) Development: growth and differentiation from the zygote
...

b) Early Development
i) Fertilization – the haploid sperm meets the haploid egg, and the two
together create a single diploid zygote
...
There is
no change in the overall size
...

iii) Gastrulation – cell rearrangement
...
This makes the outer
layer, a
...
a
...
These three tissue layers are the products
of gastrulation
...

(2) Endoderm – GI tract and accessory organs such as pancreas, liver, and
lungs
...

(3) Mesoderm – the rest of the internal organs and vessels
iv) Morphogenesis – formation of distinct structures and distinct organs
...
Phases of production
a
...

i
...

ii
...

b
...
Calves are bought,, raised on residue
...

c
...
Cows feed on concentrate
...

Commercial feedlot >1000 cows
...
Seedstock – genetics
i
...

2
...
Integrated operations – no stocker-yearing, non-fed cattle, no feedlot,
finished on pasture in US
...
Cow-calf management
a
...
Pounds weaned calf/cow
...
Calf crop times average weight =
calf poundage / cow
...
Annual cow cost

iii
...
That exactly
balances cost
...
Managing calf crop
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

c
...
Selection for heterosis
...
Growth stimulants
d
...
Feed cost – 60-80%
ii
...

iii
...

4
...
Inexpensive feed is a must
...
Need calves that will gain weight on this
c
...

d
...

5
...
More expensive feed = more weight gain
...
Also looking for small cows
...
Breeds
a
...
Holstein – dairy cows; 95%
...
16,000 pounds a year
...
Jersey – dairy cows; 3%
...
Good for butter and cream
...

iii
...

b
...
Artificial Insemination is most common
...

ii
...

c
...
Milk properties: select for volume, higher or lower fat, and
higher or lower protein
...
Udder qualities
1
...
Attachment of udder to body wall
...
Poor heritability
1
...


2
...
Overview
i
...
Settle: pregnant
...
Freshen: birth
...
Cycle
1
...
That leads to milk production, which peaks at 6 weeks
after giving birth
...
Rebreed after peak, 8 weeks in
...
Milking period = 10 months long
...
2 month dry period follows the 10 month milking
period, where no milking occurs at all, to rehabilitate
the rumen and give the milking glands a two month
break, while the baby is in the last trimester
...
Feeding Options
i
...
Supplement with concentrate
...
TMR: Total Mixed Ration
1
...

2
...

c
...
If you do not have a 2 month dry period and give them to short
of a dry season, that gives less milk production
...
2 months is the
ticket!
d
...
Weaning
1
...
Colostrum is necessary for calves, so
they are bottle fed the colostrum
...
3 day weaning – babies get colostrum straight from
mom, but then are weaned after 3 days
...
Forage Feeding
1
...

iii
...
Bull calves are turned into veal
...

2
...

The older girls that don’t make as much get replaced
...
Replacements

1
...

e
...
Machine: air pressure simulates natural milk removal but an
alternating pattern of high pressure and low pressure to get
out the milk
...
Hand milking: pinch and massage
...
Milk processing
1
...

2
...
This
degrades the flavor of the milk
...
Homogenization: This is how you get whole milk
...
Antibiotic residue: if a drop of milk from a cow that still
has antibiotics in it ends up in a large vat in a milk truck,
the whole milk truck is useless
...

3
...
Mastitis: Inflammation: swelling, redness, heat, and pain
...


i
...

ii
...

1
...

2
...
Look for
excessive number of white blood cells in milk clumping
in solution
...
Prevention: Clean and dry teats with a single use towel
...
Shut off the vacuum before
removing teat cups
...
Predisposition to Mastitis: pendulous udder
...

b
...

i
...

c
...
Has nothing to do with fever or infection
...
This happens most
common within a week before or after freshening
...
Treat with IV Calcium
...
Grain Related Dairy Diseases
i
...
To many
microbes with too much food creates too much gas
...
Treatment: puncture the rumen with a trocar and move
quickly so the fibrous mat and gas will spew out
...
Abomasum ulcers caused by stress or caused by grain which
increases the number of bacteria and worsens ulcers
...
Bacterial abscesses caused by same thing as ii
...
Displaced abomasum is a twisted abomasum corrected by
surgery
...

Lactation and milk
1
...
Production trends: number of cows have decreased while production
has gone up
...

b
...
Fat: 3-4%
...

c
...


d
...
Passive Immunity is preformed antibodies passed in the
colostrum from the first day milking
...

e
...

Skim milk
...

2
...
Main function
i
...
Passive immunity
b
...
Species variation
1
...

2
...

3
...
Sow: 6-20 glands and teats
...

ii
...
Exocrine mammary glands; the glandular product is
delivered by a duct (as opposed to endocrine via blood)
...
Alveoli are the milk-producing units of the mammary
glands
...

3
...
Then it fills the teat cistern,
where it is massaged through the teat duct/streak canal
...
Suspensory ligaments get stretched out causing a
pendulous udder from over production of milk
...
Development
1
...
During gestation, the ducts proliferate and the
milk-producing alveoli are formed
...
Milk production
1
...
Hormones like
prolactin, produced during pregnancy, drive this
initiation
...

2
...
Release of milk into the teat cistern
...
Mechanism: sucking increases oxytocin which
causes myo-epithelial cells to squeeze the milk
down into the duct system
...
Factors influencing oxytocin release:
i
...

ii
...
It can
also be linked to feeding (feeding while
milking happens), or even washing the
udders
...
Pain and stress
1
...

Swine

1
...
Distribution
i
...

ii
...


b
...
Pork production rise as number of farms fall
...

c
...
Feeder pig producer – a breeder, selling the offspring at 40 lbs
...
Feeder pig finishing – buys them around 40 lbs and raises them
to market weight of 200 lbs
...
Farrow to Finish – breeds and grows pigs to market weight
...
Seed stock – working with individuals to sell offspring as
future breeders for other farms
...
Swine Breeding
a
...
Sow productivity measured in litter size, or the number
weaned, but the best is the 21-day litter weight
...
This is through heterosis
...
Growth Rate: how fast do piglets put on weight after birth?
This is heritable
...
Feed Efficiency: Pounds of gain/pound of feed
...
This is heritable
...
Carcass Quality: select for lots of back fat
...

v
...


b
...
A
single boar impregnates many sows, and 80% of the herd’s genetics
contribute to the stock
...
Farrow to Finish Management
a
...
This is why in industry,
sows are housed individually, like stanchion feeding in cows
...

b
...
Behavioral factors
1
...
This allows the boar
to get used to the farm
...
Test mate by giving the boar a few practice mates to
make sure he knows what he’s doing
...

3
...
Boars are dangerous
...
Health Factors
1
...
It is unpreventable and untreatable
and can destroy a herd
...
The main
symptom is infertility/sterility
...


2
...
Erysipelas – bacteria causes red skin lesions
b
...
Fence line Contract
a
...
This is for acclamation
as well as a chance to get exposed to all the same
bacteria in small doses to let the boar develop
protection after exposure (same idea as
vaccination)
...
Breeding Females
i
...
Delay breeding until the second cycle so all are fertile
...
High temperature
1
...

iii
...
Vaccinate what you can prevent to prevent preventable
losses
...
Induce puberty early

1
...
If it is sprayed around piglets, it calms them
down
...

d
...
Average litter size: 10 farrow, 8 weaned
...
Farrow preparation: all about protecting the newborn piglets
...
Worm the sow
...
Disinfect the facility so they don’t get neonatal diarrhea
...
Wash teats and belly
...
Maternal Problems
1
...

In the industry, this is prevented by antibiotics given
after farrowing
...
Baby pig management
i
...
Pigs nest in the wild so if a pig was rolled over in a
nest, they would get pushed down instead of squashed down
against the concrete
...
However,
at our school, we discovered that there was no significant
difference in the number of piglet deaths in farrowing crates

when compared to the deaths in regular pins with no nests or
crates
...
Assistance at birth – freeing the mouth and nose from the birth
membranes
...
Neonate care –
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
Iron injection to prevent anemia
b
...

c
...

d
...

iv
...
It is
caused by bacteria and can only be treated by sanitation
...
Weaning to market
i
...

ii
...
Pigs that are weaned in groups are placed in a nursery
after weaning until they reach 40 pounds
...
Finishing barn

1
...
Feed efficiency is
most important in finishing
...
Withdrawal time is important!

Sheep and Goats
1
...
Grazing
i
...
Browse: shrubs
...
Forbs: broad leaves
...

ii
...
Cattle like tall grasses
2
...
Goats prefer browse to forbs
...
GI
i
...
They have dental pads on the upper
jaw and teeth on the lower, and they are ruminants
...
Reproduction:
i
...
They have a
reproductive season, usually in late fall, during which they go

through multiple estrus cycles
...
Gestation is 150 days and they give birth in early
spring
...
Sheep management
a
...
Wool
ii
...
Breed Group
i
...

1
...
This is beneficial for farmers
...
Medium wool breeds
ii
...
Meat – stronger twinning and scattering tendencies
...
Dual Purpose Breed is ram breeds and ewe breeds bread
together
...
If your ewe is fine wool then the herding tendency
tends to persist
...
Management system
i
...
Lots of land per individual but very low grain cost
...
Intensive system
1
...
Twinning is
a positive in this scenario
...
Twins
1
...
The
foster mother’s amniotic fluid soaks a jacket that is
placed on the other twin, and the mother that
experienced neonatal death will feed this lamb
...
General Management
i
...
Their bones are weak, they get
sick, they get parasites and because of their herding
tendencies, if one gets sick, they can all get sick
...
Predators: wolves, dogs, coyotes, hawks
...
Guards: Dogs, llamas, and donkeys
...
Sheep Dogs:
1
...


2
...

iv
...
Tagging: cleaning and clipping of ewes backside to
assist with conception and delivery
...

2
...

3
...
Immediately Treat umbilicus with iodine
b
...
Tail dock
d
...
Provide heat
f
...

4
...
3-4 months
5
...
9-month system from breeding to weaning
...
Common to advance breeding to late august to
get lambs to be sold in May where prices are
highest
...
Sheering occurs in late spring
3
...
Uses
i
...
Meat
iii
...
Breeds
i
...

ii
...

iii
...

iv
...
”
v
...
World wide,
they are used for meat and milk
...

c
...
Kid management is very similar to the sheep
...

ii
...
The
last portion of pregnancy and 2 months afterwards is where

they have the greatest need for energy, so concentrate is
needed
...
Never
scratch a male billy goat near the horns because your hands
will smell for ages
...




















Poultry
1) Intro
a) Species – chicken, turkey, duck, goose, and more
b) Chicken industries: broilers (meat) and layers (eggs)
...
US has 8 bil
...
S
...
On average, every
American has their own dedicated laying hen
...

e) History
i) Pre 1950’s – egg producing industry
...

ii) 1950’s – industrial revolution lead to increased production which lead to
separation of layers vs
...
By this point, up to 1 million birds could
be placed in a single location
...
Less than 3 companies are in control of the
majority of all the broiler chickens in the USA
...
Same trend in milk production
...
Breaking a
bird bone is the equivalent of puncturing a lung in a mammal
...

c) Excretion; The liver can turn amino acids into lots of different things, but
always leaves out ammonia, so they build ammonias up to make crystalline
uric acid
...

d) Reproduction
i) Mating; chickens do not have an estrus cycle
...
Puberty is around 20 weeks
...
1 rooster per 12
hens
...
The albumin (egg white) is 100% protein
...

iv) Candling helps tell the age of an egg and you can tell this through the size
of the air sac
...

3) Broiler Industry
a) Objective: produce 4
...
Feed efficiency should be
2:1, where every 2 pounds of feed adds 1 pound of gain
...
Health issues;
Prone to illness, especially heart attacks because their heart cannot support
the size of their bodies
...


c) Housing; 1-1
...
All
in/all out system
...

d) Lighting; low light increases feeding, so 12+ hours of low light keeps the
birds eating
...
Feed" eggs
...
Select for small bodies (less food
needed and more space for housing) and select for stopping brooding
behavior (sitting on laid eggs)
...
It peaks at 29 weeks
...

ii) Old hens are used for soup or we can try to regenerate their laying
potential through forced molting
...
The
most common way to do this is through depriving food for 1-2 weeks
...

iii) Egg types
(1) The size increases as the hens age, so they don’t want too large eggs
that are more brittle
...

iv) Feed – calcium must be supplemented
...
The excrement falls through wire mesh
into the floor and the eggs fall forward into a slant on the conveyor
belt
...
Light is kept low for more than 12 hours to induce feeding
again
...
It’s sad
...
Intro
a
...
Disease: anything that disrupts homeostasis and drives
functions out of the normal range
...
Contagious: an animal with a disease that can be spread
...

1
...
Ringworm
3
...
Morbidity – rate of incidence (number with disease)
...
Mortality – death rate
...
Signs of Disease

i
...
Decreased activity
iii
...
Separation from herd
v
...
Signs are objectively noted
...
Medicine
...
Specific Symptems
i
...
Coughing (Respiratory)
iii
...

iv
...

2
...
Sanitation
i
...

ii
...

iii
...
All in/all out systems like those in poultry
...
Nutrition
i
...

c
...
Part of preventing disease is keeping records
...
Then you can identify if
genetics are in play or a disease
...
New animals
i
...

e
...
Biologicals – vaccines
...
Pharmaceuticals – things like antibiotics that kill bacteria or
anthelminthics to prevent worms
...
Natural Disease Defense
a
...
Skin has to be in tact and the barrier gets weekend if the skin
gets wet
...
This causes hoof rot
...
Secretions – enhance the surface barrier
...
This is found in saliva and tears
...

iii
...
Mucociliary escalator – lining of the bronchial tree has
silia that help bring things up or down
...
GI Lining enhances barrier function through mucus, HCl, and
cell turnover
...
Non-specific Response – If this is a response to a bacteria, it could be
the same response as a trauma, fungus, or virus
...
Inflammation (swelling, redness, heat, and pain),
1
...
Mast cells have packets
of histamine, which causes vessel dilation and leakiness
...
Increased blood
delivery creates warmth and redness
...
Fever
1
...
Fevers help in two ways;
white blood cells and other helpful cells replicate faster
at higher temperature
...

c
...
Unique features –
1
...

2
...


ii
...
Antigen – foreign molecule
...
The presence of it triggers the
immune response
...
Pathogen – any disease causing organism including
viruses
...

3
...
This marks the pathogen for destruction
...

iii
...
If there is no antibody, the macrophages
consume pathogens, disassemble them, and present antigens
...
Presentation of antigen to various WBCs in the
lymph nodes
...

iv
...
Cytotoxic T Cells attack target cells and inject poison
that destroys the cell membrane
...
Vaccinations
a
...
Purpose; intentionally trigger humoral immunity (antibodies)
for the memory cells
...

The virus in a vaccination is either killed or weakened
...

b
...
Passive immunity
i
...

ii
...

c
...
Live organisms that have been weekend
...
Dead organisms
iii
...

d
...
First injection makes antibodies and memory cells
...
Second injection increases the antibodies and memory cells
...
Maternal Interference
i
...
But how long
they stay in the system varies, so the first injection kills the
pathogen, the second injection makes antibodies and memory
cells so it’s the first effective one, and the we give a third
injection to increase the antibodies and memory cells
...
(livestock)
...

c) Thermal neutral zone – the range of effective temp that requires the least
energy expenditure to regulate their temp
...

2) Physiological regulation
a) Hypothalamus: determines set point and compares core temp to the set
point
...

i) Increase 1% per degree of coldness
...
To decrease core temp: increase blood flow to extremities,
panting, sweating (evaporation)
...

b) Conduction – transfer of heat by contact
c) Convection – transfer of heat by air or fluid
d) Evaporation – when water evaporates carrying heat energy
...

b) White muscle disease – selenium deficiency leads to calcification of heart
and voluntary muscles
...

5) Animal handling and movement
a) Sensory differences (umvelt = each individuals different perspective)
...

(2) Promote movement:
(a) light – not in eyes
...

(c) Cattle – electric prod
...


iii) Flight zone – space around an individual an animal is comfortable being
in
...

(2) Working the zone
(a) The zone is the point of balance where you can come up into the
flight zone boundary without the animal being able to see you
...
If they rear
up, back out
...
(Temple Granden, a lady with
autism who believes she understands animals better due to her autism,
introduced this, and it’s been incredibly helpful)
...
To an individual in a herd, that is the worst
thing
...

b) Physical restraints like squeeze chutes are incredibly helpful for giving
injections, cleaning, and many other uses
...
Towels can also
be used
...

c) Physical and biochemical restraints
i) Muzzling a dog releases endorphins in the brain, along with scruffing
(holding the neck) a cat and twitching (enclosing part of the lip in a loop
and pinching it a little) a horse, creates a natural sort of sedation
...
If they are easy to lay
down, they will be easy to rise after anesthesia
...

ii) Sedation – used for dental exams and other things
...
Doesn’t control pain, but some have analgesics in them
...
They are great
for humans but very inhumane
...
Analgesics could be used but often are seen as extra cost so are
not used to control pain

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