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Title: Respiratory System, Digestive System, & Urinary System Notes
Description: These notes include the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and the thoracic cavity, the description of the pressures that govern air flow into and out of the lungs and how these pressures change during the respiratory cycle, the factors that influence pulmonary ventilation, the respiratory volumes and capacities, the forces that govern gas exchange in the lungs and in the tissues, the neural control of respiration, the anatomy of the Digestive system, the basic processes carried out by the GI system & know the general laminar structure of the wall of the GI tract and the tissues, the functions of Salivary glands, Pancreas and Liver, the basic processes involved in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and absorption of vitamins, minerals and water, a basic understanding of neural and hormonal control of GI function and food intake, the long reflex pathway & short reflex pathway of the digestive system, the gross and microscopic anatomy of the kidney and nephron, the steps of tubular reabsorption, how tubular secretion takes place, the regulation of Urine concentration and volume, as well as countercurrent mechanism, how countercurrent multiplier creates gradient, and how countercurrent exchanger maintains gradient.
Description: These notes include the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and the thoracic cavity, the description of the pressures that govern air flow into and out of the lungs and how these pressures change during the respiratory cycle, the factors that influence pulmonary ventilation, the respiratory volumes and capacities, the forces that govern gas exchange in the lungs and in the tissues, the neural control of respiration, the anatomy of the Digestive system, the basic processes carried out by the GI system & know the general laminar structure of the wall of the GI tract and the tissues, the functions of Salivary glands, Pancreas and Liver, the basic processes involved in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and absorption of vitamins, minerals and water, a basic understanding of neural and hormonal control of GI function and food intake, the long reflex pathway & short reflex pathway of the digestive system, the gross and microscopic anatomy of the kidney and nephron, the steps of tubular reabsorption, how tubular secretion takes place, the regulation of Urine concentration and volume, as well as countercurrent mechanism, how countercurrent multiplier creates gradient, and how countercurrent exchanger maintains gradient.
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1
Chapter 22: Respiratory
-Know the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and the thoracic cavity
• The upper respiratory tract is comprised of the nasal cavity, oral cavity, nostrils, and the pharynx
• The lower respiratory tract is comprised of the larynx, trachea, left & right (primary) bronchus, the right
& left lung
• The lower respiratory tract can be broken down into:
• Conducting Zone: which has the bronchi and bronchioles
• Respiratory Zone: Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
• Structure of the Lungs
• Structure of the Alveolus
Alveolar Sac
•Alveolar duct
•Alveoli
~300 million alveoli that make up the lung volume
• Structure of the Respiratory Membrane
2
Respiratory membrane
•Blood- Air barrier
•Alveoli and capillaries
• fused basement membranes
Structure of the Thoracic Cavity
3
-Be able to describe the pressures that govern air flow into and out of the lungs and how
these pressures change during the respiratory cycle
• Blood supply
• Pulmonary circulation
• Pulmonary arteries deliver systemic venous blood from heart to lungs for oxygenation
• Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones back to heart
• Bronchial circulation
• Bronchial arteries provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue
• Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins
• Pressure relationships inside the thoracic cavity
• Atmospheric pressure (Patm):
• ~760 mmHg at mean sea level
• Respiratory pressures described relative to Patm
• Negative respiratory pressure: less than Patm
• Positive respiratory pressure: greater than Patm
• Zero respiratory pressure: equal to Patm
Intra-pulmonary pressure (Ppul):
•
• Pressure in alveoli
• Fluctuates with breathing
Intra-pleural pressure (Pip):
•
• Pressure in the pleural cavity
• Fluctuates with breathing
• Always negative (
•
• Elastic recoil of lung
• Surface tension of alveolar fluid
Trans-pulmonary pressure (Ppul – Pip):
•
• Pressure that keeps lung spaces open
• Keeps lungs from collapsing
• Greater transpulmonary pressure, the larger the lungs will be
• Lungs will collapse if:
• Pip = Ppul or
• Pip = Patm
• Negative Pip must be maintained to keep lungs inflated
4
-Be able to discuss the factors that influence pulmonary ventilation
• Inspiration:
• Active process involving inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals)
• As thoracic cavity volume increases, lungs are stretched as they are pulled out with thoracic cage
• Causes intrapulmonary pressure to drop by 1 mm Hg Ppul < Patm
• During same period, Pip lowers to about 6 mm Hg less than Patm
• Expiration:
• Quiet expiration normally is passive process
• Inspiratory muscles relax, thoracic cavity volume decreases, and lungs recoil
• Volume decrease causes intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul) to increase by +1 mm Hg
• Ppul > Patm so air flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until Ppul = Patm
• Physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation
• Airway resistance
• Friction
• Relationship between flow (F), pressure (P), and resistance (R):
• Alveolar surface tension
• Surfactant is body’s detergent-like lipid and protein complex that helps reduce surface tension of
alveolar fluid
• Lung compliance
• Ease with which lungs can be stretched
• Affected by
• Elasticity
• More elastic -> less compliant
-Know respiratory volumes and capacities
• Respiratory volumes
• Tidal volume (TV)
• amount of air moved into and out of lung with each breath
• Averages ~500ml
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
• amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume
• 2100–3200 ml
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
• amount of air that can be forcibly expelled from lungs
• 1000–1200 ml
• Residual volume (RV):
• amount of air that always remains in lungs
• Needed to keep alveoli open
Respiratory capacities
•
• Combinations of two or more respiratory volumes
• Inspiratory capacity (IC): sum of TV + IRV
• Functional residual capacity (FRC): sum of RV + ERV
• Vital capacity (VC): sum of TV + IRV + ERV
• Total lung capacity (TLC): sum of all lung volumes (TV + IRV+ ERV + RV)
Dead space
•
• Anatomical dead space: does not contribute to gas exchange
• Consists of air that remains in passageways
• ~150 ml out of 500 ml TV
Alveolar dead space: space occupied by nonfunctional alveoli
•
• Can be due to collapse or obstruction
• Total dead space: sum of anatomical and alveolar dead space
5
-Be able to describe the forces that govern gas exchange in the lungs and in the tissues
• O2 and CO2 movement
• Arterial blood O2 and CO2 levels remain relatively constant
• Oxygen moves from alveoli to blood at same rate it is consumed by cells
• Carbon dioxide moves from blood to alveoli at same rate it is produced by cells
• External respiration
• External respiration (pulmonary gas exchange) - involves the exchange of O2 and CO2 across
respiratory membranes
• Exchange is influenced by:
• Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
• O2
• Steep partial pressure gradient between blood and lungs
• Venous blood PO2 = 40 mm Hg
• Alveolar PO2 = 104 mm Hg
• CO2
• Partial pressure gradient for CO2 is less steep
• Venous blood PCO2 = 45 mm Hg
• Alveolar PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
***Though gradient is not as steep, CO2 still diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen (Why?)***
• Ventilation-perfusion coupling:
• matching of alveolar ventilation with pulmonary blood perfusion
• Perfusion: blood flow reaching alveoli
• Ventilation: amount of gas reaching alveoli
• Ventilation and perfusion rates must be matched for optimal, efficient gas exchange
• Both are controlled by local autoregulatory mechanisms
• PO2 controls perfusion by changing arteriolar diameter
• PCO2 controls ventilation by changing bronchiolar diameter
• Thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane
• Very thin respiratory membrane (0
...
, gastrin)
•Small intestine:
•Coiled, hollow tube that connects
stomach and large intestine
•8–10 feet long
10
• Primary site of digestion and absorption
• Three divisions
• Duodenum (~25 cm)
• Jejunum (~2
...
6 m)
• Modifications
• 1
...
Villi
• Fingerlike projections of mucosa (~1 mm high)
• contains dense capillary bed and lymphatic capillary
• 3
...
001 osmol
Hydration state affects amount of urine
•
25
• Dehydration – small amount
• Overhydration – large amount
• Uses countercurrent mechanism
• Fluid flows in opposite directions in two adjacent segments of same tube with hairpin turn
• Two types of countercurrent mechanisms
• Countercurrent multiplier: interaction of filtrate flow in loops of juxtamedullary nephrons
• Countercurrent multiplier creates gradient
• Countercurrent exchanger: blood flow in ascending/descending limbs of vasa recta
• Countercurrent exchanger preserves gradient
• Collecting ducts can then use gradient to vary urine concentration
-Know how countercurrent multiplier creates gradient
• Ascending limb of nephron loop is impermeable to H2O and selectively permeable to solutes
• Descending limb of nephron loop is freely permeable to H2O, impermeable to solutes
26
27
-Know how countercurrent exchanger maintains gradient
• Countercurrent exchanger utilizes vasa recta
• Flow of blood in vasa recta is also countercurrent (hairpin turn) so blood can exchange NaCl and water
with surrounding interstitial fluid
28
• Clinical evaluation of Kidney
• Urinalysis: urine is examined for signs of disease
• Renal clearance: volume of plasma kidneys can clear of a particular substance in a given time
• Renal clearance tests are used to determine GFR
• To help detect glomerular damage
• To follow progress of renal disease
Title: Respiratory System, Digestive System, & Urinary System Notes
Description: These notes include the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and the thoracic cavity, the description of the pressures that govern air flow into and out of the lungs and how these pressures change during the respiratory cycle, the factors that influence pulmonary ventilation, the respiratory volumes and capacities, the forces that govern gas exchange in the lungs and in the tissues, the neural control of respiration, the anatomy of the Digestive system, the basic processes carried out by the GI system & know the general laminar structure of the wall of the GI tract and the tissues, the functions of Salivary glands, Pancreas and Liver, the basic processes involved in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and absorption of vitamins, minerals and water, a basic understanding of neural and hormonal control of GI function and food intake, the long reflex pathway & short reflex pathway of the digestive system, the gross and microscopic anatomy of the kidney and nephron, the steps of tubular reabsorption, how tubular secretion takes place, the regulation of Urine concentration and volume, as well as countercurrent mechanism, how countercurrent multiplier creates gradient, and how countercurrent exchanger maintains gradient.
Description: These notes include the anatomical structures of the respiratory system and the thoracic cavity, the description of the pressures that govern air flow into and out of the lungs and how these pressures change during the respiratory cycle, the factors that influence pulmonary ventilation, the respiratory volumes and capacities, the forces that govern gas exchange in the lungs and in the tissues, the neural control of respiration, the anatomy of the Digestive system, the basic processes carried out by the GI system & know the general laminar structure of the wall of the GI tract and the tissues, the functions of Salivary glands, Pancreas and Liver, the basic processes involved in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and absorption of vitamins, minerals and water, a basic understanding of neural and hormonal control of GI function and food intake, the long reflex pathway & short reflex pathway of the digestive system, the gross and microscopic anatomy of the kidney and nephron, the steps of tubular reabsorption, how tubular secretion takes place, the regulation of Urine concentration and volume, as well as countercurrent mechanism, how countercurrent multiplier creates gradient, and how countercurrent exchanger maintains gradient.