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Title: Final study guide for Anatomy I
Description: SMU 2441 - first semester of sequential anatomy classes Chapters include: chemical organization, cellular organization, tissue organization, Integumentary system, Osseous tissue, axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, joints, skeletal muscle tissue, nervous tissue and the autonomic nervous system

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Ariana  Dubelko  
 

1  

APSM  2441  Final  Exam  Review  
 
Chapter  1  
o Tissue:  groups  of  cells  that  work  together  to  perform  a  particular  function;  4  types  
§ Epithelial  Tissue  
§ Muscular  Tissue  
§ Connective  Tissue  
§ Nervous  Tissue  
o Organ:  different  types  of  tissues  joined  together  to  perform  specific  functions;  usually  have  
recognizable  shapes  
§ Ex
...
 Digestive  proteins  split  proteins  into  amino  acids  
o 6  essential  life  processes  
1
...
Responsiveness:  ability  to  detect  changes  in  the  environment  and  make  an  appropriate  
response  à  CNS  detects  raised  blood  pressure,  regulates  it  
3
...
Growth:  increase  in  size  due  to  cell  development  and  differentiation  à  bone  growth,  
working  out  to  gain  muscle    
5
...
Reproduction  à  fertilization  of  an  egg  by  a  sperm;  formation  of  new  cells  in  order  to  
repair,  replace,  or  grow  new  tissue  à  having  a  baby,  formation  of  new  bone  during  
appositional  growth  
o Homeostasis:  a  condition  of  equilibrium  in  the  body’s  internal  environment;  dynamic  or  you  would  
be  dead  
o Feedback  system:  Stimulus  is  detected  by  the  receptor  à  sends  info  to  the  control  center  à  
control  center  decides  what  to  do  with  stimulus,  sends  to  effector  
o Negative  Feedback  system:  reverses  a  change  in  a  controlled  condition  
o Ex
...
 Normal  child  birth  
o Stretching  of  cervix  =  stimulus  
o Nerve  cells  (receptors)  receive  stimulus  
o Send  to  brain  =  control  center  
o Brain  interprets  and  sends  info  to  muscles  in  uterus  to  contract  more  =  effector  
o Result  is  increased  stretching  of  cervix  
 
Chapter  2:  Chemical  Organization  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

o

o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

o

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2  

Three  states  of  matter  
1
...
 Blood  
2
...
 Oxygen  and  Carbon  Dioxide  
3
...
 Bone  
Anion  =  negatively  charged  ion  à  Chloride  (Cl-­‐)  
Cation  =  positively  charged  ion  à  Calcium  (Ca2+)  
Endergonic  reaction  =  releases  more  energy  than  it  absorbs  
o Build  body  structures,  move  substances  in  and  out  of  cells  
Exergonic  reaction  =  absorbs  more  energy  than  it  releases  
o Occur  as  nutrients  are  broken  down  à  glucose  to  ATP  
Inorganic  Compound  =  usually  lack  carbon,  structurally  simple  
o Water,  salts,  acids,  bases,  carbon  dioxide,  carbonic  acid  
o Water  is  most  abundant  inorganic  compound  in  human  body  (55-­‐60%  of  adult  body  mass)  
Organic  Compound  =  always  contain  carbon,  usually  contain  hydrogen,  always  have  covalent  
bonds;  most  are  large  molecules;  makeup  38-­‐43%  of  human  body  
o Major  organic  compounds  in  human  body:  
§ carbohydrates,  lipids,  proteins  
Carbohydrates  =  function  as  a  source  of  chemical  energy  for  generating  ATP  needed  to  drive  
metabolic  reactions  
Monosacchrides  –  simple  sugars;  5  ring  hexos;  only  absorbable  form  of  carbohydrate  
o Glucose  (most  utilized  for  producing  energy),  fructose,  galactose  
Disacchrides  –  2  monosacchrides  (glucose  +  1  more)  
o Sucrose  =  glucose  +  fructose  
o Lactose  =  glucose  +  galactose  
o Maltose  =  glucose  +  glucose  
Polysacchrides  –  chain  of  monosacchrides  
o Starches  à  only  found  in  plants  
o Cellulose  (fiber)  à  we  can’t  digest  it  
o Glycogen  (in  animals)  à  chain  of  glucose  molecules  stored  in  muscles  and  liver;  easiest  
form  of  energy  
Lipids  =  fatty  acids,  triglycerides,  phospholipids,  steroids;  hydrophobic  
o Fatty  acids    
§ Saturated  =  solid  at  room  temperature,  contain  only  single  covalent  bonds  à  
saturated  with  hydrogen  atoms  
§ Unsaturated  à  liquid  at  room  temp,  contain  one  or  more  double  covalent  bonds  
• Mono  =  one  kink  
• Poly  =  2  kinks  
• Essential  Fatty  acids  cannot  be  made  by  the  human  body  but  we  need  them  
to  survive  à  omega  3,  omega  6,  cis-­‐fatty  acids  
o Decrease  bone  loss,  reduce  arthritis,  wound  healing,  improve  skin  
healing,  improve  mental  function  
o Lower  LDL,  raise  HDL  
o Triglyceride  –  one  glycerol  +  3  Fatty  acids  (FA  are  simplest  lipid)  
§ How  body  stores  fat;  used  for  protection,  insulation,  energy  storage  
o Phospholipid  –  structural  component  of  cell  membrane  (phospholipid  bilayer)  
§ Polar  head  that  dissolves  in  water  (hydrophilic  head),  non-­‐polar  tail  that  does  not  
(hydrophobic  tail)  
o Lipoprotein  –  compound  lipid,  transport  lipids  in  blood,  carry  triglycerides  and  cholesterol  
to  tissues  and  remove  excess  cholesterol  from  bloodà  lipid  molecules  joining  with  
hydrophilic  protein  molecules,  become  soluble  because  the  proteins  are  on  the  outside  and  
lipids  are  on  the  inside  

3  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

High  density  lipoproteins  =  good  cholesterol,  contributes  to  health  of  cells,  keeps  
LDLs  from  sticking    
§ Low  density  lipoproteins  =  bad  cholesterol,  clogs  arteries  
o Steroids  
§ Cholesterol  –  needed  for  cell  membrane  structure  
§ Estrogen  
§ Testosterone  
§ Cortisol  
§ Bile  salts  
§ Vitamin  D  
o Trans-­‐fatty  acids  increase  LDL,  reduce  HDL,  increase  risk  of  heart  disease  
o Enzyme  à  special  proteins  that  catalyze  metabolic  reactions  in  all  living  cells  
o Substrate  =  substance  upon  which  an  enzyme  has  its  effect  
o Enzymes  (catalysts)  speed  up  chemincal  reactions  by  increasing  frequency  of  collisions,  
properly  orienting  molecules,  and  /  or  lowering  activation  energy  
o Concentration  of  reactants,  temperature,  and  presence  of  a  catalyst  increase  likelihood  of  reaction  
occurring  
o Free  radicals  à  an  electrically  charged  oxygen  atom  with  an  unpaired  electron,  destroys  cells  
looking  for  an  electron  to  pair  with  
o Radiation,  inflammation,  metabolism,  smoking,  pollution,  UV  light,  exercise  all  contribute  
to  free  radical  production  
o Free  radicals  are  linked  to  cancer,  alzheimers,  diabetes,  arthritis,  aging  deterioration  
o Antioxidants  are  sent  out  to  reduce  free  radicals;  superoxide  dismutase  (in  body),  vitamin  
C,  dark  chocolate,  berries    
Chapter  3:  Cellular  Organization  
o Three  main  parts  of  cells:  
1
...
 Most  plasma  membranes  include  specific  channels  for  several  
common  ions  
o Carrier  (Integral)  –  transporter;  transports  specific  substances  across  
membrane  by  changing  shape  
o Enzyme  (integral  and  peripheral)  –  catalyze  reactions  in/out  of  cell  
o Linker  
o Identity  Markers  (glycoprotein)  –  distinguishes  your  cells  from  anyone  
else’s;  important  class  markers  are  major  histocompatibility  proteins  
o Receptors  *  
2
...
Nucleus  –  genetic  library  of  cell  
o Osmosis  =  diffusion  in  which  there  is  a  net  movement  of  a  solvent  through  a  selectively  permeable  
membrane;  passive  process;  water  moves  by  osmosis  across  plasma  membranes  from  an  area  of  
lower  solute  concentration  to  higher  solute  concentration  
o Move  via  simple  diffusion  OR  through  aquaporins    
o If  cell  is  in  hypertonic  solution,  net  movement  of  water  is  out  of  the  cell  (crenation)  
o Hypotonic  solution,  net  movement  of  water  is  into  the  cell  (hemolysis)  
o Isotonic  solution,  no  net  water  movement  out  of  cells  
§

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

o

o

o

4  

Electrochemical  gradient  =  Concentration  gradients  –  dif  in  concentration  of  a  chemical  between  2  
regions;  Electrical  gradients  –  dif  in  electrical  charges  between  2  regions  
o Help  move  substances  across  plasma  membrane  
o Down  concentration  gradient  =  passive  process  
§ Facilitated  diffusion  =  passive;  carrier  moves  solute  down  its  concentration  
gradient  across  plasma  membrane,  no  energy  required  
o Active  process  =  cellular  energy  is  used  to  drive  substance  against  its  concentration  
gradient  
Active  Transport  
o Primary  active  transport:  energy  derived  from  hydrolysis  of  ATP  changes  shape  of  a  carrier  
protein,  which  pumps  a  substance  across  plasma  membrane    
§ Ex
...
 
Sodium-­‐glucose  symporter  
§ Antiporters  =  moving  two  substances  in  opposite  directions  across  membrane;  ex
...
Tight  junctions  –  weblike  strands  of  transmembrane  proteins  that  fuse  together  the  outer  
surfaces  of  adjacent  plasma  membranes  to  seal  off  passageways  between  adjacent  cells  à  
stomach  or  bladder  
2
...
Desmosomes  –  contain  plaque  and  cadherins,  weld-­‐like  junctions  that  prevent  cells  from  
separating  under  tension  and  contraction  à  epidermis  and  cardiac  muscle  cells  
4
...
Gap  junctions  –  membrane  proteins  called  connexins  form  fluid  filled  tunnels  that  connect  
neighboring  cells;  plasma  membranes  of  gap  junctions  are  not  fused  together;  ions  and  
small  molecules  can  diffuse  from  one  cell  to  another;  allow  cells  to  communicate  with  one  
another  à  nervous  system,  cardiac  muscles,  cornea  of  eye  
o Epithelial  Cells  
o Apical  surface  =  free  surface,  may  contain  scilia  /  microvilli  
o Lateral  surface  =  face  adjacent  cells  on  either  side,  may  contain  junctions  
o Basal  surface  =  adhere  to  extracellular  materials  (basement  membrane)  
o Basement  membrane  =  thin  extracellular  layer  formed  by:  
§ Basal  lamina  =  closer  to  and  secreted  by  epithelial  cells  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

5  

§ Reticular  lamina  =  closer  to  connective  tissue  
2  types  
§ covering  and  lining  epithelium  à  outer  covering  of  skin,  inner  lining  of  internal  
organs  
§ glandular  epithelium  à  makes  up  secreting  portion  of  glands  
• endocrine  glands  –  secrete  hormones  into  blood,  no  duct  
• exocrine  glands  –  secrete  products  into  a  duct  that  are  then  released  onto  
surface  of  or  into  lumen  of  organ  
Arrangement  of  Epithelial  cells  
o Simple  epithelium  –  one  layer;  functions  in  diffusion,  filtration,  secretion,  absorption;  all  
cells  in  contact  with  basement  membrane  
o Pseudostratified  epithelium  –  appears  to  have  layers  because  nuclei  are  at  different  levels  
and  not  all  cells  reach  apical  surface  but  all  cells  touch  basement  membrane  
§ Cells  that  do  not  reach  apical  surface  are  goblet  cells  and  secrete  mucous    
§ Cells  that  reach  apical  surface  may  have  cilia  
o Stratified  epithelium  –  two  or  more  layers  that  protect  underlying  tissues  from  wear  and  
tear  
Shape  of  Epithelial  cells  
o Squamous  –  flat  and  wide,  thin,  allows  for  rapid  passage  of  substances  
o Cuboidal  –  cube  shaped,  function  in  secretion  and  absorption,  may  have  microvilli  
o Columnar  –  taller  than  they  are  wide,  protect  underlying  tissue,  specialized  for  secretion  
and  absorption,  apical  surface  may  have  cilia  or  microvilli    
o *Transitional  –  change  from  squamous  to  cuboidal  (bladder)  
Epithelial  Tissues:  avascular,  innervated,  high  regeneration  rate  for  renewing  /  repairing  tissue  
o Simple  epithelium:  
1
...
 Lungs  
a
...
Simple  cuboidal:  lines  tubules  of  kidneys  and  some  glands;  function  is  secretion  and  
absorption  
3
...
Nonciliated  =  gastrointestinal  tract  
b
...
Pseudostratified  columnar:  respiratory  tract,  ciliated  secretes  mucous  to  trap  
particles    
o Stratified  epithelium  
1
...
Keratinized  location  =  epidermis,  non  keratinized  =  mouth  
2
...
Stratified  columnar:  protection  and  secretion;  found  in  salivary  glands  
4
...
 Tissue;  epithelial  layer  has  tight  junctions  
o Cutaneous  membrane:  skin!  
o Serous  Membrane:  visceral  and  parietal  layers  (parietal  connects  to  areolar  connective  tissue);  
lines  pericardium,  peritoneum,  pleura  
 
Chapter  5:  Integumentary  System  
o Functions  of  integumentary  system:  
o Protection    
§ Sebum  (oil)  –  secreted  by  sebaceous  glands  –  prevents  bacteria  and  drying  out  of  
hair  and  skin  
§ Sweat  (acidic  pH0  –  secreted  by  sudoriferous  glands,  kills  microbes  
§ Melanin  –  shields  keratinocytes  from  UV  damage  
§ Keratin  –  protects  tissues  from  microbes,  abrasion,  heat,  chemicals  
§ Lipids  –  lamellar  granules  prevent  water  evaporation  from  skin,  prevent  entry  of  
water  on  skin  surface  
§ Langerhans  cells  –  signal  immune  system  to  attack  invader  
o Thermoregulation  
§ Cold  stress  –  constriction  of  blood  vessels  in  dermis  reduce  heat  loss,  decrease  
sweat  rate  
§ Heat  stress  –  increased  sweating,  dilation  of  blood  vessels  in  skin  increase  amount  
of  heat  loss  from  the  body  
o Sensory  perceptions  
§ Meisner’s  corpuscles  –  touch  
§ Pacinian  corpuscles  –  pressure    
o Synthesis  of  Vitamin  D  
§ UV  rays  stimulate  vit  d  synthesis,  enzymes  in  liver  and  kidneys  convert  Vit  D  to  
calcitrol  which  aids  in  calcium  absorption;  need  10-­‐15  mins  of  sunlight  2x  per  week  
o Emotional  Expression  
o Epidermis:  resists  damage,  protects  underlying  tissues  
o Cells:  
§ Keratinocytes  –  90%  of  epidermal  cells,  produce  keratin  (protects  skin  from  
abrasions,  heat,  microbes,  chemicals;  secrete  lamellar  granules  
§ Melanocytes  –  produce  melanin  that  is  present  in  keratinocytes  to  protect  the  
nucleus,  contributes  to  skin  color,  absorbs  UV  light;  similar  number  in  each  person  
but  they  produce  a  different  amount  of  pigment  
§

7  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

Freckles  =  clusters  of  concentrated  melanin  triggered  by  exposure  to  
sunlight;  genetic  trait  
• Moles  =  nevi  /  birthmarks,  lesions/overgrowth  of  melanocytes  of  the  skin  
o Malignant  melanoma  is  cancer  of  melanocytes  
• Albinism  –  dysfunction  in  the  enzyme  that  produces  melanin,  absence  of  
pigment  in  skin,  hair,  eyes  
• Vitiligo  –  absence  of  melanocytes  in  an  area  resulting  in  depigmentation;  
unknown  genetic  factor  coupled  with  autoimmune  disease  
§ Langerhans  cells  –  immune  response,  easily  damaged  by  UV  light  which  reduces  
their  ability  to  destroy  invading  microbes  
§ Merkel  cells  –  detect  touch  sensations;  located  in  stratum  basale  layer  of  epidermis    
o Layers:  
§ Stratum  corneum  –  flat,  dead  keratinocytes  that  contain  mostly  keratin  
§ Stratum  lucidum  –  only  in  skin  of  fingertips,  palms,  soles;  flat  dead  keratinocytes  
with  large  amount  of  keratin  à  IN  THICK  SKIN  
§ Stratum  granulosum  –  flattened  keratinocytes  that  are  beginning  to  degenerate;  
layer  that  secretes  lamellar  granules  
§ Stratum  spinosum  –  keratinocytes  with  bundles  of  keratin;  contains  melanocytes  
§ Stratum  basale  –  deepest  layer,  composed  of  cuboidal  /  columnar  keratinocytes;  
stem  cells  undergo  cell  division  to  produce  new  keratinocytes;  melanocytes  and  
tactile  epithelial  cells  associated  w  tactile  discs  are  scattered  among  keratinocytes
...
 Spinal  cord  
o Movement  –  muscle  attach  to  bones,  move  body  
o Mineral  homeostasis  –  bone  tissue  is  made  up  mostly  of  calcium  and  phosphorus  
o Blood  cell  production  –  red  bone  marrow  produces  red  blood  cells,  white  blood  cells,  and  
platelets  =  hemopoiesis  
§ Fetus  –  all  marrow  is  red  
o Triglyceride  storage  –  yellow  bone  marrow  is  mostly  made  of  adipose  cells,  store  
triglycerides  as  a  potential  energy  reserve  
o Structure  of  long  bone:  
o Diaphysis  –  middle  /  long  portion  of  long  bone  
o Metaphysis  –  between  epiphysis  and  diaphysis    
o Epiphysis  –  proximal  and  distal  ends  of  long  bone,  covered  by  articular  cartilage  (hyaline),  
composed  of  spongy  bone  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

Periosteum  –  membrane  surrounding  entire  bone  
§ Dense  irregular  connective  tissue,  highly  vascularized  and  highly  innervated  
§ Contains  osteoblasts  that  promote  appositional  bone  growth  
§ Assists  with  fracture  repair  
§ Attachment  point  for  tendons  and  ligaments  
o Endosteum  –  lines  medullary  cavity  
o Medullary  cavity  –  where  yellow  marrow  is  housed,  highly  vascularized,  minimizes  weight  
of  bone  
o Epiphyseal  plate  –  hyaline  cartilage  in  adolescents,  cellular  division  at  the  growth  plate  
causes  elongation  of  the  bone  at  each  end  
§ Epiphyseal  line  when  growth  stops  
o Articular  cartilage  –  ECM  is  composed  of  gel  like  ground  substance  and  collagen  fibers;  
chondrocytes  in  lacunae,  lacks  perichondrium  and  blood  supply  
Process  of  Longitudinal  /  Interstitial  growth  at  epiphyseal  plate  (4  zones):  
1
...
Zone  of  proliferating  cartilage  à  chondrocytes  are  slightly  larger  and  arranged  like  stacks  
of  coins;  undergo  interstitial  growth  as  they  divide  and  secrete  ECM,  divide  to  replace  dead  
chondrocytes  at  diaphyseal  side  of  plate  
3
...
Zone  of  calcified  cartilage  à  only  a  few  cells  thick,  consists  of  dead  chondrocytes  (ECM  
around  them  has  calcified),  osteoclasts  dissolve  calcified  cartilage,  osteoblasts  and  
capillaries  from  diaphysis  invade,  osteoblasts  secrete  ECM  and  this  zone  becomes  new  
diaphysis  (bone)  
Cells  of  Osseous  Tissue  
o Osteoprogenitor  cells  –  unspecialized  bone  stem  cells  derived  from  mesenchyme,  only  
bone  cell  to  undergo  cell  division,  resulting  cells  develop  into  osteoblasts;  found  in  
periosteum/endosteum  
o Osteoblasts  –  bone  builders  (deposition);  secrete  ECM;  initiate  calcification;  become  
osteocytes  when  they  mature  
o Osteocytes  –  mature  bone  cells,  main  cell  in  bone  tissue,  maintains  daily  metabolism  of  
tissue  
o Osteoclasts  –  large,  derived  from  WBC,  concentrated  in  endosteum,  breaks  down  bone  
(resorption)  
o Chondrocytes  –  cartilage  cells  that  monitor  cartilage  tissue  
o Chondroblast  –  cartilage  cells  that  secrete  ECM  
Functions  of  Osseous  Tissue  
o Osteons  –  composed  of  repeating  structural  units  of  concentric  lamellae  arranged  around  a  
central  canal;  in  compact  bone  
o Lacunae  –  spaces  between  concentric  lamellae  that  contain  osteocytes;  little  lakes  
o Canaliculi  –  projections  from  the  lacunae    
o Concentric  lamellae  –  circular  plates  of  mineralized  ECM  of  increasing  diameter  
surrounding  a  smell  network  of  blood  vessels  and  nerves  
o Interstitial  lamellae  –  space  between  neighboring  osteons  
o Central  canal  –  contains  blood  vessels  and  nerves    
o Trabeculae  –  in  spongy  bone,  irregular  patterns  of  lamellae,  red  bone  marrow  is  within  the  
spaces  
o Factors  that  effect  bone  remodeling:  
§ Minerals  à  calcium  and  phosphorus  are  needed  
§ Vitamins  à  vitamin  A  stimulates  osteoblast  activity,  vit  C  is  needed  for  synthesis  of  
bone  protein  
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Ariana  Dubelko  
 

Hormones  à  HgH,  Thyroid  hormones,  and  insulin  like  growth  factors  stimulate  
bone  growth  
§ Exerciseà  stressed  bone  remodles  stronger  
§ Braces  à  stress  bone  that  forms  sockets    
Appositional  Bone  Growth  
1
...
Osteocyte  ridges  fuse  together  forming  tunnel  and  enclosing  blood  vessel;  former  
periosteum  becomes  endosteum  that  lines  tunnel    
3
...
Osteoblasts  under  periosteum  build  new  circumfrential  lamellae  making  bone  even  thicker,  
additional  blood  vessels  become  enclosed  and  processes  repeats  
Bone  Remodeling  –  replacement  of  old  bone  tissue  with  new  bone  tissue  
o Resorption  –  removal  of  minerals  and  collagen  fibers  from  bone  tissue  (osteoclasts)  
o Deposition  –  addition  of  mineral  and  collagen  fibers  to  bone  (osteoblasts)  
o 5%  is  being  remodeled  at  any  given  moment  
o Compact  bone:  4%  per  year  
o Spongy  bone:  20%  per  year  (distal  part  of  femur  about  ever  2-­‐4  months)  
Hardness  of  bone  (compression  ability)  –  crystallized  minerals  
Flexibility  of  bone  (tensile  strength)  –  collagen  fibers    
Parathyroid  Hormone:  regulates  free  Ca2+  concentration  in  blood;  secreted  when  you  have  low  
plasma  calcium  content  
o Stimulus  à  low  plasma  Ca2+  
o Receptor  à  PTH  gland  cells  detect  low  Ca2+  concentration  
o Control  center  à  DNA  in  PTH  gland  cells  (PTH  gene  turned  on  and  PTH  is  secreted)  
o Effectors  à    
§ Bone:  stimulates  osteoclast  formation,  number,  and  activity  
§ Kidneys:  decrease  loss  of  Ca2+  in  urine,  activate  Vitamin  D  which  stimulates  
calcitrol  synthesis  and  increases  Ca2+  absorption  
§ GI  tract  à  calcitrol  promotes  Ca2+  absorption  from  foods  
Calcitonin:  secreted  when  you  have  high  Ca2+  plasma  levels  in  blood  
o Stimulus  à  high  plasma  Ca2+  
o Receptor  à  parafollicular  cells  in  thyroid  gland  detect  high  levels  
o Control  center  à  DNA  in  parafollicular  cells  
§ Calcitonin  is  secreted  by  thyroid  gland  
o Effectors  à    
§ Bone  à  inhibits  osteoclast  activity,  promotes  bone  deposition  
Osteoporosis:  bone  resorption  >  deposition  
o 80%  patients  are  female  
o Risk  factors:  sedentary  lifestyle,  poor  diet,  alcohol  and  drug  use  
Bone  related  conditions:  
o Osteomalacia  –  inadequate  calcification  in  adults;  pain  in  bones  and  frequent  fractures  
o Rickets  –  inadequate  calcification  in  immature  bone;  growing  bones  become  rubbery  
o Giantism  –  oversecretion  of  hGH  during  childhood  
o Acromegaly  –  too  much  growth  hormone  is  secreted  after  closure  of  epiphyseal  plates;  too  
much  new  tissue  is  formed  and  bones  become  heavy  and  thick  
o Osteoarthritis  -­‐-­‐    
o Dwarfism  –  undersecretion  of  hGH  during  childhood;  normal  sized  head  and  torso  and  
small  but  proportionate  limbs  
Calcification  =  the  hardening  of  bones  
Tumor  of  Parathyroid  Gland  
§

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Ariana  Dubelko  
 

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10  

Hypersecretion  of  PTH  would  result  in  increased  osteoclast  activity  because  the  PTH  
signals  that  the  body  needs  more  calcium  
Bones  would  experience  higher  levels  of  resorption  
Too  much  calcium  in  the  body  could  result  in  seizures  /  sustained  muscle  contractions  
Calcitonin  would  be  secreted  if  body  could  detect  high  levels  of  Ca2+  

 
Chapter  7:  Axial  Skeleton    
o Five  types  of  bones:  
o Long  bone  –  greater  length  than  width,  absorbs  stress  of  body’s  weight,  mostly  compact  
bone  but  spongy  in  epiphysis;  contain  medullary  cavity  
§ Femur  
o Short  bone  –  cube  shaped,  spongy  bone  covered  in  layer  of  compact  bone  
§ Trapezoid  (wrist  bones)  
o Flat  bone  –  thin  and  composed  of  two  plated  of  compact  bone  tissue  enclosing  layer  of  
spongy  bone  tissue;  protection  
§ Cranial  bones;  sternum  
o Irregular  bone  –  complex  shapes,  vary  in  amount  of  spongy  and  compact  bone  
§ Hip  bones,  vertebrae  
o Sesamoid  bone  –  develop  in  tendons  where  there  is  a  lot  of  friction,  protect  tendons  from  
excessive  wear  by  acting  as  pulley  
§ Patella  
o Curves  of  vertebrae  
o Cervical  (7)  –  develops  when  infant  can  hold  up  head  
o Thoracic  (12)  –  primary  curve  in  fetus  
o Lumbar  (5)  –  develops  when  child  can  sit,  stand  up  
o Sacral  (5  fused)  –  primary  curve  in  fetus  
o Abnormal  curvature  of  vertebra  
o Scoliosis  –  lateral  curving  
o Kyphosis  –  increased  thoracic  curve  (osteoporosis)  
o Lordosis  –  increased  lumbar  curve  (belly  out)  
o Axial  skeleton  –  skull,  thorax,  vertebral  column  (80  bones)  
o Appendicular  skeleton  –  bones  of  all  appendages  (206  bones)  
o Paranasal  sinuses  –  mucous  membranes  produce  mucous  to  moisten  and  clean  inhaled  air  
o Sinusitis  =  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  
o Nasal  Septum  –  perpendicular  plate  of  ethmoid  bone  and  septal  cartilage  
o Deviated  septum  =  misalignment  of  the  septum  
o Broken  nose  =  usually  perp
...
 CT  (coronal  suture)  

11  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

Syndesmosis  –anmphiarthrosis,  band  or  ligament,  greater  distance  between  the  
articulating  surfaces  and  more  dense  irregular  connective  tissue  than  in  suture  
(tibiofibular  joint)  
§ Interosseous  Membranes  –  amphiarthrosis,  sheet  of  dense  irregular  CT  that  binds  
neighboring  long  bones  (radius  and  ulna;  tibia  and  fibula)  
o Cartilaginous  –  no  synovial  cavity,  bones  held  together  by  cartilage  
§ Synchondroses  –  synathrosis;  cartilaginous  joint  where  connecting  material  is  
hyaline  cartilage  (epiphyseal  plate  =  syntosis)  
§ Symphysis  –  amphiarthrosis;  ends  of  articulating  bones  are  covered  with  hyaline,  
but  disc  of  fibrocartilage  connects  bones;  all  occur  at  midline  of  body  (pubic  
symphysis)  
o Synovial  –  (diarthrosis)  bones  forming  the  joint  have  a  synovial  cavity  and  are  united  by  
dense  irregular  connective  tissue  of  an  articular  capsule  and  accessory  ligaments  
§ Epiphysis  of  articulating  bones  covered  in  articular  cartilage  
§ Articular  capsule:  fibrous  membrane  (ligament)  and  synovial  membrane,  filled  w  
synovial  fluid  
§ Articular  fat  pads  for  cushioning,  synovial  fluid  for  shock  absorption,  lubrication,  
oxygen  and  nutrient  supply  to  chondrocytes,  friction  reduction  
Functional  Classification  of  Joints  
o Synarthrosis  –  immovable  joint  
§ Syntosis  –  bony  joint  (some  sutures)  
o Amphiarthrosis  –  slightly  movable  joint  
o Diarthrosis  –  A  freely  movable  joint  
Types  of  Synovial  Joints  
o Plane  joints  –  back  and  forth,  side  to  side  movement;  biaxial  à  tarsals  in  foot  
o Hinge  joints  –  open  and  closing  motion;  uniaxial  à  humerus  and  ulna  at  trochlear  notch  
o Pivot  joints  –  rotation  around  longitudinal  axis;  uniaxial  à  head  of  radius  and  radial  notch  
of  ulna  
o Condyloid  joints  –  flexion  and  extension,  abduction  and  adduction;  biaxial  à  wrist  
o Saddle  joints  –  flexion  and  extension,  abduction  and  adduction;  biaxial  à  between  wrist  
and  thumb  
o Ball  and  Socket  joints  –  flexion  and  extension,  abduction  and  adduction,  rotation;  triaxial;  
head  of  femur  and  acetabulum  of  hip  bone  
Movements:  
o Flexion  –  elbow    
o Extension  –  arm  straight  down  
o Hyperextension  –  arm  behind  midline  (from  standing)  
o Adduction  –  toward  midline  
o Abduction  –  away  from  midline  
o Circumduction  –  distal  end  of  body  part  in  a  circle  
o Dorsiflexion  –  ankle  joint,  foot  up  
o Plantar  flexion  –  ankle  joint,  point  toes  
o Lateral  flexion  –  leaning  to  the  side;  intervertebral  joints  
o Inversion  –  pressure  on  outside  of  foot  (intertarsal  joints);  supination  
o Eversion  –  pressure  on  big  toe;  pronation  
o Opposition  –  carpometacarpal  joint;  fingertips  touching  
o Pronation  –  posterior  of  palm  (radioulnar  joint)  
o Supination  –  anterior  of  palm  
o Retraction  –  temporomandibular  joint  
Factors  that  affect  range  of  motion:  
o Structure  /  shape  of  articulating  bones  
o Strength  and  tension  of  joint  ligaments  
§

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Ariana  Dubelko  
 

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12  

Arrangement  and  tension  of  muscles    
Contact  of  soft  tissues  
Hormones  
Disuse    

 
Chapter  10:  Skeletal  Muscle  Tissue  
o Characteristics  of  Muscle  Tissue  
1
...
Contractibility:  can  shorten  in  length  
3
...
Elasticity:  can  return  to  original  shape  after  being  stretched  
o Types  of  muscle  tissue  
o Skeletal  
o Cardiac  
o Smooth    
o Functions  of  Muscle  Tissue  
o Produce  body  movements  –  whole  body  or  localized  
o Stabilizing  body  position  –  maintain  posture  
o Moving  substances  within  the  body  –  smooth  and  cardiac  muscle  
o Generating  heat  (thermogenesis)  –  muscle  contraction  (skeletal  and  involuntary)  generates  
heat  
o Structure  of  a  muscle  
o Epimysium:  membrane  surrounding  whole  muscle  
o Perimysium:  membrane  surrounding  fascicle  
o Endomysium:  membrane  surrounding  individual  muscle  fibers  
o Fascicle:  group  of  muscle  fibers  
o Myofibril:  contractile  organelles  of  skeletal  muscles  that  make  up  the  muscle  fiber  cell,  
contain  chains  of  sarcomeres  
o Myofilament:  contractile  proteins  within  myofibrils,  thick  or  thin  
o Sarcolemma:  plasma  membrane  of  muscle  cell  
o Sarcoplasm:  cytoplasm  of  muscle  fiber  
o Sarcoplasmic  Reticulum:  membranous  sacs  that  release  and  reuptake  calcium  during  
contraction  
o T-­‐tubules:  invaginations  in  the  sarcolemma  where  action  potential  travels  down  cell  
o Thick  filament:  myosin  
o Thin  filament:  actin    
o Satellite  cells:  help  repair  muscle  cells  
o Structure  of  a  Sarcomere  
o Contractile  proteins:  myosin  (thick)  and  actin  (thin)  
o Regulatory  proteins:  turn  contractions  on  and  off  
§ Troponin  –  pulls  tropomyosin  away  
§ Tropomyosin  –  covers  myosin  binding  site  
o Structural  proteins:  provide  sarcomere  alignment,  elasticity,  extensibility  
§ Titin  –    
§ Alpha-­‐actinin  –  binds  actin  to  titin  
§ Myomesin  –  m  line  proteins  bind  adjacent  thick  filaments  together  
§ Nebulin  –  binds  actin  to  z  discs  (wraps  around  actin  filament)  
§ Dystrophin  –  links  thin  filament  to  sarcolemma  
o Z  discs  –  narrow  plate  shaped  regions  that  separate  one  sarcomere  from  next  
o A  band  –  dark,  middle  part  of  sarcomere  that  extends  entire  length  of  thick  filaments  and  
includes  parts  of  thin  filaments  that  overlap  thick  

Ariana  Dubelko  
 

I  band  –  lighter,  less  dense  area  of  sarcomere  that  contains  remainder  of  thin  filaments  and  
no  thick  filaments;  Z  disc  passes  through  center  
o H  zone  –  narrow  region  in  center  of  each  A  band,  contains  thick  filaments,  no  thin  
o M  line  –  region  in  center  of  H  zone  that  contains  proteins  that  hold  thick  filaments  together  
at  center  of  sarcomere  
Sliding  filament  mechanism:  
1
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Calcium  binds  troponin  
3
...
Opening  of  myosin  binding  sites  and  the  myosin  heads  are  free  to  bind  
Contraction  /  cross-­‐bridge  cycle:  
1
...
Myosin  heads  bind  to  actin,  forming  cross-­‐bridges  
3
...
As  myosin  heads  bind  ATP,  cross-­‐bridges  detach  from  actin  
Excitation-­‐Contraction  coupling  –  involves  events  at  junction  between  motor  neuron  and  skeletal  
muscle  fiber  
o Nerve  action  potential  travels  down  axon  of  nerve  activating  voltage  gated  calcium  
channel  
o Triggers  release  of  ACh  from  synaptic  vesicle  
o Ach  activates  ligand-­‐gated  sodium  channels  in  junctional  folds  of  motor  end  plate  
o Create  a  muscle  action  potential  
o Travels  down  sarcolemma  and  T  tubules  
o Opens  Ca2+  release  from  SR  
o Calcium  bins  to  troponin,  exposes  binding  site  for  myosin  on  actin  
o Contraction  occurs  
Muscle  relaxation:  
o Ca2+  release  channels  in  SR  close,  active  transport  pumps  use  ATP  to  bring  back  Ca2+  
o Troponin-­‐tropomyosin  complex  slides  back  to  cover  binding  site  
o Muscle  relaxes  
Acetylcholine-­‐esterase  degrades  Ach  
Length-­‐tension  relationship  =  how  forceful  a  muscle  contraction  can  be  depends  on  the  length  of  
the  sarcomere  before  the  contraction  begins  
o Maximum  tension  occurs  when  zone  of  overlap  between  thick  and  thin  filament  extend  
from  edge  of  H  zone  to  end  of  thick  filament  
o Very  close  to  resting  length  is  optimal  
o Stretched  too  long:  fewer  myosin  heads  can  make  contact  w  actin  
o Shortened  length:  tension  decreases  because  fewer  myosin  heads  are  making  contact  
because  they  are  crumpling  
o 90-­‐110  is  optimal  length  
Sources  of  Muscle  Energy  
o Phosphogen  system  à  ATP  +  Creatine  =  ADP  +  Creatine  Phosphate  
§ 15  seconds  
o Anaerobic  glycolosis  à  muscle  glycogen  into  glucose  +  2  ATP  =  2  pyruvic  acid  +  2  Lactic  
acid  
§ 2  min  maximal  (slide  says  30-­‐40sec)  
§ Smooth  muscle  
o Aerobic  Respiration  à  fatty  acids,  pyruvic  from  glycolosis,  oxygen,  amino  acids  go  into  
cellular  respiration  in  mitochondria  =  produces  36  ATP  
§ Minutes  to  hours  
§ Cardiac  muscle  
o

o

o

o

o

o
o

o

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o
o
o

o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

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Isotonic  Contraction:  tension  remains  constant,  muscle  length  changes  
o Concentric:  muscle  shortens  à  bicep  curl  
o Eccentric:  muscle  elongates  à  squat  
Isometric  contraction:  tension  generated  is  not  enough  for  object  to  move,  muscle  doesn’t  change  
length  à  plank  
Skeletal  Muscle  Fiber  Types  
o Slow  oxidative  (Type  I)  
§ Small,  appear  dark  red,  lots  of  myoglobin  
§ Least  powerful  type  
§ Fatigue  resistant  
§ Long  term  aerobic  
§ Used  for  endurance  à  running  marathon  
o Fast  oxidative  glycolytic  (Type  IIa)  
§ Long  term  anaerobic  
§ Intermediate  in  size,  appear  red  or  pink  
§ Moderately  resistant  to  fatigue  
o Fast  glycolytic  (Type  IIb)  
§ Short  term  anaerobic  
§ Large,  white,  little  myoglobin  
§ Powerful  
§ Intense  anaerobic  activity  of  short  duration  
§ Large  motor  neuron  
§ Low  mitochondrial,  oxidative  capacity  
Muscle  fatigue:  inability  of  muscle  to  maintain  force  of  contraction  after  prolonged  activity  
o Central  fatigue:  CNS  
o Peripheral  fatigue:  
§ Inadequate  release  of  calcium  ions  from  SR  
§ Depletion  of  creatine  phosphate  
§ Insufficient  oxygen  
§ Depletion  of  glycogen    
§ Buildup  of  lactic  acid  and  ADP  
§ Failure  of  motor  neuron  to  release  enough  ACh  
Myoglobin  –  protein  that  can  store  oxygen;  useful  for  aerobic  respiration  and  long  term  energy  
supply  (type  I  fibers)  
Rigor  Mortis  –  no  ATP  so  muscles  cannot  relax    
Latent  period  of  contraction  –  brief  delay  between  stimulus  and  beginning  of  contraction  as  AP  
moves  over  the  sarcolemma  and  Ca2+  is  released  
Curare:  plant  poison  used  on  arrows  and  darts  
o Blocks  ACh  receptors  inhibiting  Na+  ion  channels;  causes  muscle  paralysis  
Botox  
o Blocks  release  of  ACh  from  synaptic  vessels;  may  be  found  in  improperly  canned  foods  à  
respiratory  paralysis    
Anticholinergenic  medication:  blocks  ACh  in  CNS  and  PNS  
Myasthenia  gravis:  immune  system  disorder  where  antibodies  block  ACh  receptors  (closed  eyes  is  
key)  
o Slow  enzyme  activity  of  ACh-­‐esterase    

 
Chapter  12:  Nervous  Tissue  
o Central  Nervous  system  =  brain  and  spinal  cord  
o Peripheral  Nervous  system    
o Somatic  –  special  sensory  neurons  and  motor  neurons  (voluntary)  
o Autonomic  –  sensory:  monitor  internal  environment;  motor:  involuntary  

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Sympathetic:  fight  or  flight  
• Preganglionic  neurons  leave  from  thorocolumbar  area  of  spinal  cord  
• Preganglionic  fibers  synapse  far  from  end  organ;  may  synapse  with  20  or  
more  postganglionic  neurons  
• Postganglionic  axons  terminate  in  multiple  end  organs  =  widespread  effects  
• Enzymes  that  degrade  NE  are  slow  so  effects  last  longer  
§ Parasympathetic:  rest  and  digest  
• Preganglionic  neurons  leave  from  craniosacral  areas  of  spinal  cord  
• Preganglionic  neuron  usually  synapses  with  4-­‐5  postsynaptic  neurons  
• Postganglionic  neurons  supply  single  visceral  effector  =  specific  effects  
• Enzyme  degrades  ACh  quickly  for  short  effects  
Structural  Classification  of  Neurons  
o Multipolar  –  several  dendrites  and  one  axon;  most  brain  and  spinal  cord  neurons  
o Bipolar  –  one  main  dendrite  and  one  main  axon;  special  sensory  receptors  found  in  retina  
of  eye,  inner  ear,  olfactory  area  of  brain  
o Unipolar  –  dendrites  and  one  axon  that  are  fused  together;  cell  body  is  to  the  side;  sensory  
neurons  touch  and  pain  ex
Title: Final study guide for Anatomy I
Description: SMU 2441 - first semester of sequential anatomy classes Chapters include: chemical organization, cellular organization, tissue organization, Integumentary system, Osseous tissue, axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, joints, skeletal muscle tissue, nervous tissue and the autonomic nervous system