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©2013

JKUAT SODeL

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
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JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
This means
that development is honorific term (it is universally desired)
...
Development is a subjective and value-loaded concept and, hence, there cannot be consensus on as to its meaning
According to Seers (1979), development is the process of creating the conditions for the realization of human personality, which
implies a reduction in poverty, unemployment and inequality
...
In this way development can be defined as
planned positive change meant to improve people’s lives and en-

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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

able them to meet their needs and aspirations as individuals,
groups and societies
...
g
...

According to Robert Chambers (1983) Development is a concept that is a synonym for improvement, advancement or progress
...

Chambers argues that development must entail deliberate efforts to achieve higher levels in terms of a society’s set objectives
such as,

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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

1
...
Improvement in the distribution of income(equity)
4
...
Political and economic freedom

Thus defined, development is applicable at all levels ranging
from individuals to communities, and nations and the world as
a whole
...
Any process of growth that does not lead
to the fulfillment of these objectives, (or disrupts them), is a
contradiction of the idea of development
...

From chambers analysis it is clear that the term development
should be understood as a multi dimension process of change involving the reorganization and reorientation of entire economic,
political and social systems
...

In this way development represents the full spectrum/scope
of changes by which entire societies satisfy their diverse basic

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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

needs and desires of its members so that they can move from a
condition of life perceived as unsatisfied towards a condition of
life regarded as materially and spiritually better
...
This better life has
3 component values which together represents common goals
bought by all individuals and societies
...
Life sustenance
2
...
Freedom
1
...
1
...
It means that no country can be re-

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garded as fully developed if it cannot provide its people with
basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, education, security etc
...

1
...
2
...
It can also be referred to
as identity, dignity, respect, honors or recognition
...
Today economic prosperity has
become the most important measure of worth
...


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Therefore once the common view of a better life includes
materials things, it becomes difficult for those who are materially
disadvantaged to feel respected or esteemed
...

1
...
3
...
Freedom involves expanding the range of choices for people and their countries/societies while at the same time minimizing the constraints
that limits the pursuit of life goals such as happiness
...
Freedom for him entails removal of all
the major sources of unfreedom such as poor economic prospects,
social deprivation, poor leadership etc
...

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JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

1
...
Objectives of Development
Development is both a physical reality and a state of mind in
which societies have secured the means for obtaining a better
life
...
However for all societies development must have the following three objectives;
1
...
To raise the levels of living which may include higher income, provision of more jobs, better education and more
attention to cultural and humanistic values
...

3
...

According to Arthur Lewis (1978) for a society to be free it has
to generate economic growth because economic wealth increases
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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

the retch of human choice
...
3
...
However it is commonly defined as a state of deprivation in all dimensions of life including economically, spiritually
and intellectually
...
Commonly people and
nations are said to be poor if they are characterized by;
i) Low incomes
ii) Backward technology
iii) Poor leadership
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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

iv) A relatively low life expectancy

vi) Under utilization of natural resources etc

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JKUAT SODeL

v) They are prone to political stability and insecurity due to
few policemen per head of population

According to Chambers (1983), these deprivations create a“poverty
trap” which indicates a situation where poor are held together by
interlocking self reinforcing forces that sustain and perpetuate
poverty
...
As a result it leads to a state of
affairs where a society;

ii) Lacks a sense of self respect and therefore suffer low esteem
iii) Is unable to exercise choice because its people are not free
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JKUAT SODeL

i) Lacks the ability to provide basic needs adequately

iv) Lacks capacity for self reliance and therefore are not responsible for their own livelihood and have effectively the
future
In most cases these interlocking forces are referred to as obstacles to development
...


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HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

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1
...
Development Studies as an Academic Discipline
Development is a multi disciplinary branch of social sense which
addresses issues of concern in developing nations
...
Originally development studies emerged as a branch of economics
but it has grown to become increasingly inter disciplinary and
multi-disciplinary subject incorporating political, sociology, geographical, international relations, gender studies, disciplinary
etc
People study development because they want to focus on real
world issues and problems rather than being concerned with disciplinary perspectives
...


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JKUAT SODeL

students to;

II) Engage in an informed and critical way with professionals
from diverse backgrounds concerned with development issues in particular diplomats, lawyers, economists, political
scientists, economists, anthropologists etc
III) Approach development problems with confidence and knowledge and to have the ability to work collaborate with others to identify solutions to national and global development
challenges
...
Defines the concept development and show its
various dimensions?
Solution: Todaro and Smith define development as the “process
of improving the quality of all human lives”
...

Raising peoples living standards their income and consumption levels of food, mechanical services education etc, through
relevant economic growth
Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples, self
esteem through the establishment by social and economic systems and institutions their promote human dignity and respect;
Increasing peoples freedom by enlarging the range of their
of choice variable as by increasing varienties of consumer goods
and services
...

Define the concept development and show its
various dimensions?

1
...
(1992) Economics for a developing world, London: Longman
...
Jhingan M
...
, (2003)
...

Development is about change in social, political and economic
structures of society/county and with relations among different
countries
...

Exercise 1

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JKUAT SODeL

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
DocDoc
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©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
Therefore, a theory is
a tool of explanation which enables people to account for, explore the nature of or gaining an insight to the complex reality
which confront people in the day to day lives
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
Modernization theory of development
Modernization theory is normally regarded as the first system
theory of development
...
Modernization theory is a social economic theory also known as developmentalism which highlight the three played by developed countries are wealth today because of their success with the concept
of modernity
...

According to Gabriel Almond (1995) modernity refers to social economic stage in a society characterized by the spread of
scientist knowledge, the development of technology, attainment
of higher standards of material welfare and emergence of lawful

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
and liberal and democratic systems of governance
...

Modernization involves total transformation of traditional
society into the type of technology and associated social, political and economic organization that characterize rich countries
of Western Europe and North America
...
The attainment
of modern society was seen as a strategic goal for this societies
and it was defined as the social, political and economic state of

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
development already achieved by American
...
According
to this theory the most common feature among all modernized countries is that they all have undergone industrial revolution
...

Modernization theory is concerned with how societies change
where the societies are going to and where they are coming from
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Modernization theory believe that social change is unidirectional i
...
from primitive to advanced stage implying that the
fate of human evolution is predetermined
...
In this context modernization is to
be understood as one of transitions in which backward countries
will grow increasing to resemble the American Modern
...


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Traditional
Societies
1
...
Status of person
depend on parents or
guardians i
...

inherited
3
...
Cruel technology
5
...

Status is achieved i
...

ability to work hard and
achieve
High division of labour and
job specialization
...
Those characteristics in modern societies are those factors that facilitate development
...
Therefore modernists bet the transformation of what is tradition into modern
as representing development
...
Therefore modernization theory implies that poor countries or tradition societies need to adapt the
characteristics of modern societies for them to achieve develop-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ment
...
Developing ability to mobilize capital for investment
...
Develop entrepreneurial values and investment culture that
is technologically driven
...

(d) Aspiration to higher level of literacy and effective
spreading of formal education
...

To gain access to this characteristics supporters of modernization theory agree inter dependence between rich and poor countries is useful not only for the exchange of material benefit but
also for the beneficent impact such as a relationship has in helping to undermine the traditional social values and structure that
hold back development
...
Characteristics suitable for the introduction of industrial system therefore it is suggested that less developed countries can be assisted
in adapting to the growth experience of developed countries
through a process of interaction with these countries
...
In his book “The stages of Economic Growth” a non-communist manifests (1960)
...

According to Rostow these non economic factors can best be
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introduced in less developed countries through a uniquely developed new leadership that has internalized these values
...

In Economic terms Rostow advocates for higher and increasing ability to save and the capacity to invest into productive sectors
...

The wealth created can then be applied to reduce overall of
poverty and enhance economic progress of society
...


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Output is limited because of inaccessibility of science and
technology
...
According to Rostow traditional stage represent economic stagnation
...
The pre-condition to take off
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
1
...
These include modernization of the means of transport and communication, improving the levels of education, science and also establishment of institutions capable
of mobilizing capital
...
One
represents the traditional set up and other represents as-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
pect of modernization
...
The take-off stage
In this stage, Agriculture is fully commercialized and rural
life is fully re-organized such that majority of the people
live in urban centre’s
...

These stage represent a general movement towards creation of a welfare state
...
S
...

4
...
According to him technology becomes much more complex in this stage because
of innovation and therefore there is a movement a way
from heavy industries to service industry
...

5
...
According to him members of this society have
fully satisfied their basic needs and consumption patterns
shift towards services and durable consumer goods
...
At the time when Rostow advanced this model, he saw only the U
...
A as having the
5th and final stage
...
Modernization is Characterized by stages in the stages in
this process are common to all society’s
...
Modernization is a homogenizing process such that societies tend towards convergence
...
Modernization is a transformative process meaning that
poor societies have to abandon traditional ways of thinking and the human relations in order to adopt cultures
associated with Europe & America
...
2
...
Merits of modernization Theory

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
4
...


1
...
Industrialization by its nature is a value adding process implying that modernization
represents possibility of higher economic growth which can
translate into high standard of living
...

2
...
According to Rostow no meaningful economic development can occur without changes in non-economic factors as Innovation, Entrepreneurship, competition etc
...
Modernization highlights the problems faced by first world
countries and provides an environment in which these problems can be addressed
...
Therefore to develop, they must
be assisted by the international community
...
Rostow’s version of modernization appears give all countries an equal chance to prosper by offering a clear development path
...

5
...
As such, the common feature that one associates with modern societies is liberal democracy which
implies higher and better forms of government and political participation which guarantees political stability of
countries
...

6
...


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1
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
2
...
It has been argued that modernization theory uses the
term traditional and modern societies in a mutually exclusive sense implying that the onset of economic growth and
modernity inherently leads to abandonment of traditional
patterns of life
...
g
...

3
...

As such it’s disregards exploitation of third societies which
has destroyed the abilities of the countries to effectively organize themselves for development
...
These theory has been criticized on the basis it does not
recognize the unique differences exist in both developed &
developing countries
...
The same cannot be of developing countries where commodity markets

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2
...
Dependency Theory

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
& money markets are poorly organized
...


Dependency theory developed in the late 1950’s from the writings of Latin America scholars who were disillusioned with developed policies based on modernization theory
...

In these countries inequalities were not being narrowed conflicts
were common and poverty was increasing in total disregard as
what conventional economic theory predicted
...
According to dependency theory, under
development in traditional societies is a product of the same
process of development of capitalism that has given rise to prosperity in rich countries and poverty in developing countries
Dependency theory states that the less developed countries
(LDC) are depended of developed countries (DC) and is this
dependency that is the main course of their under development
...
This means that while dominant countries can develop on their own, the dependent economies can only expand
as a reflection of the dominant countries which may have positive/negative effects on their immediate development
...

Dependence is a historical occurrence that resulted from contact of poor societies with rich mainly Europe societies which has
created patterns of relationship characterized by domination
...
In other words, it means that this dependent status have deprived these poor societies the capacity to exercise choice in external relations implying that those economies
can never be self reliant and therefore self sustaining
...
One way by which exploitation
takes place is through trading activities
...

According to Frank, the only way developing countries can
gain true development is to remove the international master servant relationship that makes them poor
...
The policy implication for dependency thinkers is:

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ii) The LDC could still welcome international capital but they
need to institute strong local controls on it to diminish its
capacity to dominate & exploit
...


iii) LDC can develop closer economic and political relations
amongst themselves so as to guarantee development benefits based on sovereign equality and shared historical experiences
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
1
...
This is because
all people have developed income in one way or the other to
greater or lesser ext therefore the concept under development is
meaningful only when it compares levels of development among
countries it is tied to the fact that human social development
has been an even more than others by producing more and thus
becoming wealthier
...
In his book titled, How Europe under Underdeveloped Africa, the concept underdevelopment expresses a
particular relationship of exploitation of one country by another
...
In his
view, foreign investment far from being on outlet for stimulating economic progress in LDC it is a most efficient method of
transferring resources from LDC to DC therefore according to
depending incomes LDC cannot achieve genuine development
based on modernization ideas
...
3
...
Characteristics of Under Developed Countries
Walter Rodney has outlined the basic characteristics of under
developed countries among them the following:
i) Low per capital income

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Source: Jhingan 2003
Vicious cycle poverty refers to self reinforcing situations
whereby certain factors exist that tend to perpetuate poverty
...
It means that

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
a majority of the population (between 70-80%) are engaged in agriculture or related occupations
...

iii) Rapid Rate of population growth
This appears to be one of the most outstanding feature
of LDCs and in many of them the rate population growth
is much higher than the rate of economic growth so that
a big portion of their resources are directed to consumption rather than development expenditure, building roads,
communication etc
...
They depend on foreign trade
...

LDC has low levels of literacy and technical education
...
There is also an acute shortage of skilled labor
...

LDC have adequate infrastructure in the form of roads,
railway lines, power lines, communication systems, sewerage systems etc
...
These contribute
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These basic characteristics of LDC, might as well be regarded as the obstacles development in other words these
characteristics provide an answer to the broad question
“why a poor country is poor” in this way these characteristics are both the course and consequence of poverty
...


2
...
3
...
By advocating for collective self reliance strategy based on
mutual co-operation and economic integration of LDCs,
dependency theory was drawing attention to the joint action by poor countries in demanding fairness in International system
...
e
...

2
...
This theory has also
drawn attention to the significance of balanced development which has led to dispersal of development projects
to rural areas and increased efforts to modernize Agriculture
...
This theory is also the basis devolution of power and resources in order to achieve development that is equitably
distributed
...

4
...


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JKUAT SODeL

2
...
4
...
This theory assumes that all LDC concentrate of production of raw material capital goods and finished consumer
products
...

2
...

Critics of dependency theory have pointed out that spread
of capitalism in LDCs, has led to development rather than
underdevelopment
...
These were
initially dependent on developed countries but which now
very developed and very competitive
...

3
...

Normally referred to as paid agents of Europeans it has
been pointed out the nationalist capitalist lose out power
in most LDC and therefore could not operate as a significant force for change which national capitalist have historically laid in western societies
...
4
...
Neo liberation recognizes the central role of the government but nevertheless argues that the market is the most
efficient in allocation of i
...
sources and driving development
initiatives
...
It means that Individuals & groups of
individuals act in a national manner to maximize their material
interest or utility
...
This belief is reinforced by the
success achieved by the newly industrialized countries of East
Asia such as Taiwan, Malaysia, South Korea, and Singapore
...
The proposed remedy
is therefore the encouragement of private sector and liberalization at national economies I order to attain these objectives the
following policy proposals are recommended
...
Limited government
This means removing unnecessary crowd-out private investment leading to market inefficiency limited government entails ending of price controls reduction of state

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
subsides and delegation of exchange rate controls
...
Therefore, rolling back the state and
allowing the market to operate is deemed to be better and
more efficient method of locating resources
...
Currency devaluation
Devaluation is the process of deliberately weakening the
local currency in terms of foreign currency
...

3
...

i) Denationalization - this means transferring public ownership of assets from the state to the private sector
...

iii) Contracting out work for example, garbage collection
is contracted out to private sector firms and they are
paid with the taxes and rates
...

Privatization may also increase efficiency
...
Liberalization of Trade

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
firms which in places efficiency in allocation of resources
...


This involves reduction of protectionist measures like tarrif barriers, exchange control quarters and price controls
with the aim of improving the efficiency of domestic producers by exposing them to foreign competition
...
SAPs is the name given to a set of free market
economic policy reforms imposed on LDCs as a condition
of relieving loans from the World Bank and IMF
...
The IMF &
World Bank argued that growth driven by private sector
was the key to development

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
In most LDC, SAP has the following objective

ii) Saps were designed to improve a countries foreign investment climate by removing trade and investment regulations
...

iv) To reduce government deficit by cutting on its expenditure
...

vi) To break political networks in parastatals and other gov-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ernment enterprises to ensure efficiency in allocation of
resources
...
4
...
Benefits of SAPs
It has also been pointed out that there are in fact a number of
ways in which the poor benefited from the on-going economic
liberalization process
...

The tremendous expansion of the informal sector in the last
few years is strongly associated with the intensification of implementation of economic reforms undertaken
...
Some people including the

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
government hold the view that the expansion of the informal
sector has had positive impact in reducing unemployment and
creating productive employment opportunities, which are facilitating poverty alleviation
...
A second justification for cutting government costs was to free up money that
could be used for repaying external debts
...
4
...
Reasons Why Saps Failed
Many groups argued that SAPs imposed harsh economic measures, which deepened poverty, undermine food security, and
self-reliance and led to unsustainable resource exploitation, environmental destruction, and population dislocation and displace-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ment
...
They believed SAP policies increased
the gap between the rich and poor in both local and global terms
...
Critics argue that for a sovereign nation the
creation of good policy is in their own best interest
...

In Kenya, the poor have been adversely affected by some
reform measures
...
This aggravated the disadvantaged
position of the poor farmers who could not sell their maize or
sugar in the market
...
24)
...

Another weakness of SAPs is the lack of stakeholder participation in the design and implementation of the programmes
...

Sap are believed to have increased the gap between the rich
and the poor in both local and global terms
...
g
...
It means
that the policy making processes of many LDC have been under moved by decisions that are formulated far away in western
capitals which are not meant to benefit them but are serving the
interest of donor countries
...
4
...
Characteristics of Free Market Economy
Individuals own the factors of production and individually decide how to use them motivated by the need to maximize reforms
from these factors of production
...
Market
economies leave the answers to the three fundamental economic
question questions to the determination of the market forces i
...

force of supply and demand
...
The
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Characteristics of a free market system
The following are the key characteristics of a free market system:
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
free play of market forces where the state plays little or no role
in economic activity is the fundamental characteristic of a free
market system
...
The institution of
private property implies that individuals and organizations
have the right to own control and dispose of factors of
production
...
Freedom of enterprise implies
that individuals are free to buy and hire economic resources, to organize these resources for production and to

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
sell their products in market of their choice
...

iii) Self –interest
...
Firms will usually aim
to maximize profits
...
Consumers will attempt to maximize their
utilities
...
The theoretical model of a free market
economy is based on a situation whereby there are a large
number of buyers and sellers, implying that the market
determines prices
...


2
...
4
...


1
...
Accordingly, producers under take production in line with consumer preferences which leads to more efficient allocation
of resources
...
In a free market system, consumers have a greater choice
of producers
...

3
...
This tends to encourage hard work and initiative contributing greatly to
technological innovation
...

4
...
A low level of political risk
is conducive to foreign investment and hence development
...
A free market system does not create many opportunities
for rent seeking activities
...

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1
...
A monopoly is a market situation
where there is only one supplier
...
4
...
Disadvantages of Free-Market System

2
...

Public goods are those commodities characterized by nonexcludability and non-rivalry or non-competition
...
The reason why free market discriminates against these goods is
because they are not profitable to produce
...
A free market economy systematically under provide for

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4
...
E
...
drugs
and alcohol
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
merit goods such as health and education
...


5
...
e
...

6
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
Human Development Approach to Development (HDA)
This theory is also called the Alternative Developed theory or
people centred dev approach
...

This theory argues that human development should not be
seen as mainly economic dev
...
According to the earlier theories of development as long the economy is growing everything else could
follow
...

However, according to human dev approach, this is only a one
sided agreement regarding development since a higher GNP does
not necessary entail equal distribution of income
...

The human development approach emphasizes the importance of putting people, their needs, their aspirations, their
choices etc at the centre of developed efforts
...
Therefore, according to this theory human development
is about enlarging peoples choices in terms of income opportunities, health, Education, nutrition, secure livelihood, access to
water etc
...

If these essential services are not available, many other op-

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portunities for HD remain inaccessible
...

The human development approach therefore seeks to create
a just society where all members participate and benefit from
development
...
5
...
Principles of Human Development
i) The principle of justice
Justice means that priority is given to ensure a dev human
existence as fairly as possible for all people e
...
people

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
must be treated equally by law
...

iii) Inclusiveness
This means that every person in society is granted on opportunity to participate and benefit from the development
of the societies
...
However
these principles have been expanded to include;

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Gender means the social construction of the roles men and
women, boys and girls
...

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
iv) Gender Equality

Right to Education
Education is widely recognized as key to national Development
...
Education is associated with increased individual earning, reduced income inequalities and reduction of
poverty
...
M Otiende (2001), Education contributes significantly to improved health; enhance democracy,

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
good governance & effective leadership
...
The formulation of these principles was designed
to challenge the economic vision of development particularly its
emphasis on productivity and growth
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Example
...

It advocates for democratization of societies based on political participation
Highlights the problems faced by third world countries and
proceeds to offer solutions
Identifies the social and economic factors required for development such as education, healthcare, capital and technology
Gives all countries and equal chance to prosper by providing
a clear development path
...

Discuss the main contribution of modernization
theory to development to development thinking and practice?



1
...
A (1965)
...
World politics 17 (2)
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

References and Additional Reading Materials

2
...
(1965)
...

University of Chicago press
3
...
Dendency items and the political
economy of Africa’s crisis
...
Black, C
...
(1966)
...
Newyork
Harpes

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
5
...
Development theory
in the theory in transition; the dependency debate and
beyond: Third world responses, London: Zed
6
...
Development research: from impasse to
new agenda
...
J Schuurman, London:
Zed
7
...
Newyork:
Oxford Universities press
...
Tudaro M
...

9
...
W
...
How Europe under developed Africa
...

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
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JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...

ˆ Explain Economic Integration
ˆ Describe problems faced by Economic Integration
ˆ Discuss the trading blocs in Africa

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3
...
Introduction
In the context of development, a strategy indicates a specific
programme of action for achieving the country’s objectives by
employing the countries resources efficiently and economically
...
This then shows that a strategy is a framework that a nation thinking and action regarding development
...

In terms of development strategies in Kenya, the first land-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
mark of the period was publication of sessional paper no 10 of
1965
...

Industrialization was to act as unique key to development
with urban areas as a point of origin of the benefits they would
later trickle down to rural areas and agricultural
...

Industrial development strategy in Kenya has five goals
i) To expand and diversify the countries export base
ii) To increase employment
iii) To raise overall productivity of the economy
iv) To foster development of local management and entrepreneurial
talent
...
2
...


It refers to an Industrialization strategy that entails an attempt
to replace commodities that are being imported with domestic sources of production and supply
...

The ISI strategy was taken for the first time in the 1966 to
1970 without plan
In this plan the government committed itself to protect the

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
infant industries and support production that would substitute
for import
...

In 1966 to 1970 government plan, the objectives of ISI are
broadly outlined as follows:
i) To conserve foreign exchange with a view to stabilizing
Kenyans balance of payment position
...

iii) To transfer needed skills technology to the domestic economy, In this regard, local intensive methods of production
were advocated
...

Several developing countries including Kenya were fairly successful with ISI since in the initial years intended to provide correct
signals and incentives to the manufacturing and other sectors
increased the level of competition and technical efficiency and
to stimulate total productivity
...
Some of the reasons as to why ISI failed are as follows:
i) The main beneficiaries in ISI were mainly for firms
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

ii) ISI was made possible by government subsidized importation of capital goods and intermediate product capital
goods are meant to produce other goods
...
g
...
This therefore undermine the
aim of selling on foreign exchange which worsened Kenya’s
balance of payments position balance of payments (difference between imports & exports)
iii) The size of the domestic market was not enough to sustain ISI
...
The rest was all
...
3
...
This again undermines the market for substitution industries
...
The importance of developing rural areas was first
indicated in sessional paper No 10 of 1965
...

In the model of development that existed in 1960’s, industry
was to play a leading role of development while agriculture was
to play a complimentary role
...

The focus on rural life was justified by the fact that about
80% of African population lives in the rural areas where agriculture is the main economic activity
...

One of the most comprehensive rural development strategies
in Kenya was the district focus for rural development which was
officially commenced in the early 1980’s it was operationalized
by Moi on Kenyatta day 20th October 1982
...
3
...
Integrated Rural Development Strategy (IRD)
Integrated Rural development involved the focusing of development effort on the transformation of rural society in Africa
...
IRD assumed that the focusing of
development on rural society was necessary to ensure the maximum benefit to the most people as well as the growth of the
entire economy
...
IRD was conceptualized by the United Nations and elaborated at the African Regional conference on the
Integrated Approach to Rural Development held at Moshi in
Tanzania in 1969
...
The projects were based on the assumption
that a critical minimum effort was necessary to have a noticeable impact on target population in a short time
...
To increase productivity in the rural
areas it was also deemed necessary to upgrade health services,
improve tools and techniques of production, combat some superstitious attitudes
...
Thus the programmes for promotion of

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
agriculture, education and training, health and nutrition as well
as community development had to be planned and executed in a
coordinated fashion with account being taken of the effect that
development programmes in one area are likely to have on other
areas
...
The strategy focused on local populations and
their potential
...
This was to ensure that local needs
shape external intervention including the government, the Non
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and other private efforts

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
and not vice-versa
...
It was also the basis for outlining
much bigger rural development programmes for or by the government
...

3
...
2
...
Based on the community development principle the
SRDP aimed to increase rural incomes and employment opportunities and develop methodologies for inducing self-generating

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
rural development activities
...

The above objectives hoped to institutionalize rural planning
and management through the establishment of administrative
structures
...
This coordination was to be done through the respective district and
provincial development committees and it was through these
two committees that local level input was to be channeled
...
There was shortage of suitable trained and unskilled local
administrators

3
...

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

2
...


4
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
In addition the SRDP committee system stimulated the appearance of the district development committee (DDC) to coordinate donor aid programmes leading to the establishment of
Rural Development Fund (RDF)
...

3
...
3
...
This means that
DFRD grew out with the concern to involve local people in development initiatives
...

Initially, DFRD focus on the need to balance rural urban
development with the aim of managing migrant to urban centres
which led to problems of sanitation health and housing in towns
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ii) To accelerate development in the District where a majority
of the people live
...

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

iii) To promote greater equity in the allocation or resources
thereby bringing about balanced development
...

These objectives were to be realized through the following activities
...

ii) Building rural infrastructure including rural access roads

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
and extending power communication lines and piped water
to rural areas
...

iii) Improving farmer’s incomes through pricing guidelines for
agricultural products
...
g
...

v) Provision of incentives/motivators for dispersion of industry to rural areas
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
These activities were based on the belief that to bring the rural poor into the main stream of economic development, they
needed physical access to markets and facilities that are available in a modern economy
...

ii) The district heads of all major operating ministerial Departments
iii) Elected officials from the Districts consisting of MPS and
two officials from each local Authority
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
The role of the DDC was to
1
...
Coordinate all development activities in the district
...
Supervise implementation
...
Monitor and evaluate progress in implementation

DFRD is thought to have resulted in the decentralization of the
management of public sector inputs
...
However DFRD strategy was not very
successful and was officially discontinued in 1988 as a basis for
rural development
...
Lack of adequate resources for development and recurrent

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
expenditure(day to day expenditure)

3
...

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

2
...
3
...
The Period of Economic Restructuring
After 1998, rural development was not longer central in government policy circles
...

These activities became more necessary because of poor economic performance characterized by low economic progress, reduced public resources and withholding of donor aid
...
In this strategy, the government sought to offer incentives
to promote production for export to solve as a basis for national
development
...

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
exporters are given incentives such as tax holiday, licensing fee
waivers in order to produce specifically for the export sector
...

iii) Export oriented strategies tend to be more labor intensive
compared to ISI strategies
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
EPI strategies have the following disadvantages among others

ii) Infant firms and industries become even more vulnerable
due to reduced government protection
...
g
...


iii) There is high exposure to harmful goods and services
3
...
Harambee Spirit as a Strategy of Development
The Harambee phenomenon permeates the Kenyan society to
such an extent that it is well nigh impossible to discuss any
aspect of the society without, somewhere along the line, touching
on Harambee
...
What are the
origins of Harambee? What is the meaning Harambee and what
is the place of the underprivileged in the context of the Harambee
phenomenon, ideology, tradition or whatever label we attach to
it?
The term ‘harambee’ has its origin in the Hindu culture and
was used most notably during the construction of the UgandaKenya railway
...

Harambee’s official recognition and institutionalization dates back
to the eve of independence in 1963 when Kenya’s founding President Jomo Kenyatta used the concept to denote local initiatives
in development
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
It is well known that in its original meaning, the word was
used when a group of people was collectively performing a physical task
...
The rest of
the group would respond, ‘Heee!’ and push or pull at the time
of the response
...
’ On a less glib note, it appears that in its original practice Harambee made no distinction between the strong and the
weak in the work group (Ngethe, 1978)
...
In other words,
everybody was a worker
...
This word is
used by workers when they have a joint task to perform, such
as pulling a log or pushing a wagon
...
Get up and go” (Ngethe, 1978)
...
The word Harambee is associated with
any group effort regardless of the nature of the task to be performed
...
e
...
Harambee has remained a popular strategy playing a
central role in Kenya’s development and acting as a major focus
of popular participation
...
To promote national unity and development through collective effort
2
...
For reduction and management of the country’s 3 major
economic enemies ie poverty, ignorance and disease
...
To improve the equality of rural life and its people

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
5
...

The appeal to the harambee spirit stemmed from its collective
and cooperative social values
...
Resources
were voluntarily contributed by community members and benefits were broad based
...
As evidence of this, it is pointed out
that a term for working together on a group or communal basis
is found in the languages of many groups in Kenya
...
Kenyatta himself
had no doubt in his mind that in practical terms, Harambee
entailed reviving and consequently encouraging the old habits
of working together so that the rural peasants could play an
active part in national development
...
In this task, we shall make use of
those attitudes of self-help, good neighbourliness and communal
assistance which are such an important feature of our traditional
societies” (Daily Nation July 11, 2006 Special Report Page 11)
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Reasons why harambee has fallen into disrepute

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...
A lot of money is siphoned from planned projects to other projects with minDocDoc
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5
...
Members of the provincial administration particularly chiefs and Dos were known
to confiscate people’s private property as contributions to
harambees
...


6
...
The Act says in Section 12: “A public officer shall not use his office or place of

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Example
...


Solution:
Reduce rural urban migration
Increase citizen participation in development decision making
Provided incentives for dispersion of industries the country
Fair distribution of resources
Better use of local resources

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3
...
Economic Integration
Economic integration refers to the action of a group of nations towards free trade
...
Free trade refers to the condition in which
the free flow of goods and services in international exchange is
neither restricted nor encouraged by direct government intervention
...
5
...
The levels of economic integration
i) A free trade area
...
This is a form of regional integration
where member countries remove all trade barriers among
themselves but have a common external tariff with respect
to non-member countries
...
This removal of trade barriers may only be on
specified commodities
...
This refers to a type of regional
integration where in addition to meeting the requirements
of a customs union, there is free mobility of factors of production between member countries
...
The most advanced form of economic union is monetary union where member countries
share a common currency or where each country retains
its own domestic currency but members allow a free exchange of these currencies at an agreed rate and member
countries agree to synchronize monetary policies
...
5
...
The case for economic integration
i) Regional integration enables countries to specialize in the
production of those commodities where they have a comparative advantage since the reduction of trade barriers
makes it easier for countries to benefit from comparative
advantage in that they can trade surplus commodities that
they produce
...

This will enable industries to make use of their excess capacity and in the process promote employment within the
countries that form part of the regional trading block
...
Politically and economically speaking between
the countries that form the trading block
...

iv) Foreign investment may be encouraged because of the possibility of making larger profits in more enabling economic
environment
...

vi) Where regional integration involves permitting the free
movement of factors between countries as in the case of
a common market, regional unemployment differences will
be reduced
...

viii) Economic integration leads to the redistribution of incomes
in favour of low-income areas since in such areas, goods are

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3
...
3
...
The overall effect would be to expand
production in low-income areas and restrict production in
high income areas causing a redistribution of incomes
...

ii) Many developing countries produce similar commodities
thereby limiting the scope for trade
...

iii) Benefits of regional integration have been unequally distributed among the different countries
...

iv) Regional integration has given rise in some cases to trade
diversion
...

v) Since the formation of economic blocks entails the reduction of tariff barriers between member countries, there is
a certain loss of revenue from tariffs, which implies that
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vi) In cases where there is a sharing of common services such
as railway and ports it may be difficult to allocate the
benefits and costs of such sharing
...


vii) Inefficient industries may be killed off by imports from
other member states, which is likely to result in increased
unemployment in countries where industries have had to
close down
...
6
...
These trading blocs have the following characteristics:

This trading bloc consists of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania
...
East African Community has an approximate market of 80 million people and an average per capita
income of about $300
...
These counties have a combined population of 375 million and an average per capita income of $ 450
...

The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
This bloc has 12 members, namely, Southern Africa, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania and Zambia
...
The administrative
offices of SADC are in Gaberone, Botswana
...
The total population is approximately 220 million and the average per capita
is approximately $400
...




Example
...

Solution:
Since they have been created by the community initative,
they enjoy a higher degree to legitimacy

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
They are better at identifying community needs because they
are close to the people
They promote high degree of participation than government
structures
...

Quick decision making leads to rapid response to community
problems
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Review Questions

 The role of the DDC was to
Exercise 2
...


Exercise 3
...




Exercise 4
...

References and Additional Reading Materials
1
...
K Ikiara (eds) Industrialization in

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2
...
O and Monya, J
...
32
...


3
...
Makokha, J
...
The District Focus: Conceptual and
Management problems
...

5
...
O
...
O and Mutiso, R
...
) working with Rural communi-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ties: Narobi: UoN Press
...
Ake, C
...
New York
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

6
...
(1986) “Local Government in Kenya: Ideology
and political practice, 1895- 1974” African studies Review,
Volume 29, No
...
Kellick, T
...
Policy Economics: A Textbook of Applied Economics in Developing countries
...

9
...
L
...
The economics of Development
and Planning, Delhi – Konark
10
...
& Shaw (1998) (eds)Our problems, Our Solutions: An Economic and Public Policy Agenda for Kenya
...


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12
...
1 of 1986:
Economic Management for Renewed Growth, Nairobi: Government printers
...
Kenya, Republic of (1994), National Development Plan
1974 – 1978
...


13
...
Nairobi Government printer
...
selection criteria and guidelines for Rural Trade
and Production centres: technical Report No
...
Chitere, P
...
N
...
Its limitations as a Decentralization and participatory planning strategy and prospects
for the future
...
Todaro, M
...
(1992) Economics for a Developing World
(3rd Edition) London: Heinmann

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
15
...
, & Owino, W
...
From sessional
paper No
...
Nairobi: IPAR
...

Plan for District specific activities
Monitor and evaluate progress in implementation
Coordinate all development activities in the district
...

Exercise 1

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JKUAT SODeL

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
DocDoc
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©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
Thus, for example, if agriculture contributes 75% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and industry
constitutes 25% of GDP then it is easier to achieve a target
rate of economic growth by expanding agriculture
...
Agriculture, therefore,
facilitates a fuller utilization of the resource base and provides
greater employment opportunities
...
This implies that the rate of industrialization will to
some extent depend on how rapidly agricultural incomes are
increasing
...
Increasing the purchasing power of rural areas as a result of expanded agricultural output will raise the demand for
manufactured goods
...
This revenue could enhance economic, social
and infrastructural development
...
The
textile industry, for example depends on cotton and wool production
...

Agricultural development is an important step towards self
–sufficiency in food production, which is important in keeping a
growing population alive
...
The increase
in agricultural production should be at a higher rate than the
rate of increase in food demand in order to avoid increases in
food prices and the need to import food from abroad
...

Agricultural products often constitute significant exports in
developing countries
...
These capital goods facilitate the industrialization process and tend to be in short supply in developing countries
...

The agricultural sector also contributes an important source
of savings
...
Savings are vital for economic growth in that they are a

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
source of vial investment funds
...
This is especially so where the
agricultural production technology has remained fundamentally
labour-intensive
...

4
...
Problems faced by the agricultural sector in developing countries
i) Agricultural products are subject to frequent price fluctuations, which in turn lead to fluctuations in farmers’
incomes
...
The impact of this factor is worsened since developing countries
mainly export agricultural products and import highly priced
manufactured goods
...
For example, if a country is heavily
dependent on coffee exports and world coffee market prices
decline sharply that country export revenue will also fall
substantially
...

v) Agricultural products from developing countries are faced
by protectionist barriers such as tariffs from developed
country markets
...
Such protectionist measures limit
the growth of agricultural exports in developing countries
and the potential that such benefits would provide
...

vii) Marketing channels for agricultural products in many deDocDoc
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
veloping countries are inefficient and inadequate
...

viii) Many farmers in developing countries are subsistence farmers and lack the necessary capital and resources to effectively implement modern agricultural development such as
the use of mechanized agriculture
...

x) Agricultural production is seasonal by nature and hence
the agricultural sector is characterized by seasonal unemployment
...
This has in turn reduced the demand for these agricultural commodities
...


4
...
1
...

ii) To deal with declining terms of trade developing countries
should diversity their economies by improving their industrial base and move into non-traditional lines in agriculture, such as, horticulture
...
Developing countries can also diversify their economies by further processing of commodities instead of simply exporting raw materials
...
Extension services will ensure that the results of
agricultural research reach many farmers
...
In order
to be successful extension services should avoid being excessively bureaucratic and should also focus on providing
favourable conditions such as prices to encourage farm-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ers to adopt technologies that have been demonstrated
...

iv) Credit facilities should be provided to farmers in terms
of soft loans to enable them to purchase needed capital
inputs
...

v) A more liberalized system should be introduced where the
private sector plays a role in production, marketing and
processing
...

vi) Research facilities should be developed to increase crop
output and improve crop quality
...
Such research can focus on aspects such as
irrigation practices, crop rotation and optimal planting
times
...

vii) Where funds are available, marginal lands should be irrigated in order to reduce pressure on fertile land and to
deal the operation of the law of diminishing returns
...
Kenyan exports have,
for example, been concentrated in the markets of the European Union and the East African region
...


4
...
The Role of Industry in Development
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JKUAT SODeL

ix) Prompt payments to farmers should be facilitated since
the delay of farmers’ payments by the government is major
disincentive to agricultural production
...
Broadly
speaking, industrial activity includes manufacturing, mining and
construction
...

Industry is important in development for the follow-

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ing reasons:
i) Developing industry constitutes a fundamental way of achieving a diversification of the economy
...

Industrial development would reduce reliance on primary
production
...
The demand for industrial products, on their other
hand, is more income elastic and thus developing industry is a good long run strategy since world demand for
industrial products is likely to increase as income rise
...
Industrial production
is, therefore, associated with a more steady income for
products
...

v) Industry can be an important source of employment that
is not seasonal
...

vi) Industry plays an important role in the development of
other sectors by the provision of vital inputs, for example,

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machinery for the agricultural sector
...

vii) Developing countries in some cases suffer from a shortage
of fertile land and agriculture already experiences diminishing returns
...
Industry should therefore be developed since productivity
increases are more likely in industry than in agriculture
...
4
...
But this dichotomy is often
overdrawn
...
The earlier confrontation of industrial development versus agriculture has been shown to be a false issue, and the concern now is rather with the interrelationships between industry and agriculture and contribution that each can make to the
other”
...
Agricultural growth provides food for the growing nonagricultural labour force and raw materials for agro-based industries, stimulates domestic demand for industrial goods, increases
savings and tax revenue to be utilized for further development,
earns more foreign exchange to finance imports of capital, intermediate goods and raw materials for industrialization, and
facilitates the development of labour-intensive village, small and
medium industries in rural and urban areas
...
Rising rural incomes have strong multiplier effects
in that they increase the demand for domestic non-agricultural
goods and services which, in turn, increase the incomes of those

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providing the goods and services
...
Besides, increases in industrial
output of consumer goods needed by the rural population, the
output of fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural tools, implements,
and other intermediate manufactured goods required by the farm
sector also increases
...
These provide further
fillip to industrialization
...
In fact, increased
agricultural productivity implies a large marketable surplus and

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a redistribution of income in favour of the rural sector
...
Rising farm incomes are mopped up through land taxes and betterment levies,
and the mobilization of rural savings through savings drives and
such financial institutions as cooperative banks, rural banks, etc
...

Increasing yields of agricultural products for exports help
finance large imports of raw materials, intermediate and capital
goods for industrial production
...

On the other side, industrialization favorably affects agricul-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
tural development in a number of ways
...
since the production of such commodities is labour intensive, agricultural production is greatly
increased without enlarging farm acreage
...

Third, industrialization followed by urbanization opens vast
job opportunities to the rural people who remit money back to
the home
...
With improved means for
transportation due to industrialization, markets expand which
facilitate the sale of such agricultural products at remunerative
prices in the towns
...

Fourth, when urbanization follows industrialization, it provides larger facilities for education, travel and contact with new
things and ideas which widen the horizon of the rural people
change their attitudes towards life and lead to modernization
...
This, in turn, tends to raise their incomes
to enable them to buy the consumer goods
...
The LDCs should, therefore, achieve the harmonious de-

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4
...
Advantages of small scale industries in developing
countries

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
velopment of agriculture and industry for a steady growth of the
economy
...
Thus, small-scale industries
are more appropriate since large-scale industries will find
it difficult to operate economically on the basis of “narrow”
domestic markets
...
This is important in developing counties, which are labour surplus economies with a high degree

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of open and disguised unemployment
...


©2013

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iii) Less capital is required to start up small –scale industries
...

vi) Small-scale establishments facilitate the dispersal of industries into rural areas
...

vii) They may have a direct effect on income distribution by

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viii) They contribute to economic independence since largescale enterprises often require increased dependence on foreign firms
...


4
...
1
...
Lack
of developed financial markets in developing countries constitutes an impediment to industrial development
...
Many people still do not channel their savings through financial intermediaries
...
This makes
it difficult to finance some critical industrial projects such
as the purchase of machinery
...
Offshore borrowing or borrowing abroad is also
an unrealistic option for the majority of small industrial
firms in developing countries
...
Electricity, for example, is usually a significant
input in the production processes of manufacturing firms
...

iv) Lack of skilled labour
Developing countries often have an abundance of unskilled
labour
...
Skilled labour
may include, for example, welders and repair specialists
...
Wages of skilled labour which is in short supply are
also likely to rise compared to the general level of wages
...
This factor of production plays an important
role in the industrialization process but is often in scare
supply in developing countries
...

vi) Inadequate development of infrastructural facilities
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The infrastructural facilities in many developing countries
such as roads and ports are either inadequately developed
in certain regions or are in a state of disrepair
...

4
...
2
...

Industry has not only created welfare improving in Kenya but
it has also created many problems
...

ˆ Rapid urbanization with attendant poverty
...


ˆ Over-specialization and limited skill in industry
...

ˆ Child labour in small industries
...

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ˆ Uneven development – with development enhancing both
industry and environment pollution
...
Nevertheless, questions arise as to whether these unintended outcomes of
industrialization
...




Example
...

Inefficient marketing channels
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Review Questions

©2013

JKUAT SODeL



Exercise 1
...
Briefly explain
the role that the sector plays in the economic development of a
country
...

What are the main economic problems that
affect countries which rely on agriculture?



Exercise 3
...




Exercise 4
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
References and Additional Reading Materials

2
...
M
...

©2013

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1
...
L
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises

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Exercise 1
...
This is especially important in the case of developing countries, which are often heaving
dependent on one or two primary products
...

The demand for primary products is income inelastic and
is therefore, not likely to increase proportionally as income rise
...


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The output of industry is subject to fewer price fluctuations
than agricultural output, essentially because the demand and
supply for industrial output is more price elastic than that of
agricultural products
...

The establishment of export promotion industries especially
in labour-intensive manufacturing is a good way of generating
foreign exchange and strengthening the balance of payments,
especially in the long run
...
This is especially the case of small –scale labour
intensive industries
...
In addition, industry has backward
linkages with sectors such as agriculture by adding value to agricultural output as in the case of food processing
...
The scope for substantial increases in productivity is
hence limited in the agricultural sector
...

Exercise 1

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
These include: The government, the
private sector civil society organization as well as international
development actors prior to the evolution reforms
...
It means that the development policy making in
the early post independent years was highly centralized
...
In

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
other words, the pattern of development has been more inclusive
and participating
...
2
...
It
cannot be a passive spectator
...
In other words, state action is
Indispensable for the economic development of many LDC
...
It includes:
1
...
Influencing the use of resources
...
Determining the use of incomes
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
4
...
Influencing attitudes
(a) In particular, the government formulates the policies
which guide the participation of other factors in development
...

(c) The government mobilizes resources (through taxation for its public functions such as defense of the
country against external aggression, provision of internal security, maintenance of civil service and infrastructure)
...

(d) Through central and local authorities, the government provides salaries such as education, health care,
water &sanitation, market etc
...

5
...
The Role of International Community
The International community continues to play an important
role in the development in the development of LDC
...
Foreign direct investment (FDI)
2
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3
...


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5
...
1
...

Most FDI in LDC is undertaken by large multi-national corporation (MNCs)
...

1
...

These enables LDC to more easily achieve then growth
targets
...
FDI is also important in generating employment in LDC
because they account for a substance proportion of the
national output of most LDC
...
Many private foreign firms may also bring with them technological knowledge about production processes while at
the same time transferring modern machinery and equipment to capital poor LDC however, they may have certain
difficulties among them:
(a) MNC use capital intensive in appropriate technology may worsen the unemployment problem in many
LDC
...
e
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

5
...
2
...
Traditionally foreign aid is assistance given by a District Commissioner to
an LDC
...

Forms of Foreign Aid
Aid may be either in the form grants or loans
...
Loans on the other hand refer
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
to funds transferred from one economic entity to another which
will be repaid with interest prescribed period of time
...
These include:- Economic Motive, Political motive, Strategic motive, Aesthetic motive, Humanitarian motive, Historical
need to deepen relationship
...
Economic Motive
Development countries give aid to LDC with the aim of
getting returns in the long run
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
e
...

3
...

4
...
It is gives in
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
times of emergency such as when there are flow earthquakes, outbreak of fires, disease or war
...
Historical Motive
A country may give aid to another country in to deepen
historical relations e
...
the UK and French governments
tend to concentrate their foreign and there ex-colonial territorial reflecting strong historical ties and also as a way
of compensation
...

5
...
Civil Societies Organizations(CSOs)
These entail all organization falling between the family and the
state
...
They also help in mobilizing resources which are then
allocated to areas of most need
...
e
...

NGO’s are instrumental in introducing new techniques of
production which when adopted bring considerable benefits to
the poor like introduction of money maker pump
...
Often
they advocate for equitable distribution of national resources

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ˆ Policy Formulation: There is a marked increase in NGO

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
during fine body process
...
Some people say compared to government, NGO’s and CBO’s have a lot of advantages;
participation in policy processes as invited participants
...

This is highly commendable
...

They use campaigning - a visible activity directed at a cerDocDoc
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
tain constituency, often media - mediated; and lobbying a direct and often private approach to individuals or small
groups of people, as an attempt to influence the decisions
of the institutional elite on behalf of a collective interest
...

ˆ As Service Deliverers: NGOs engage with policy mak-

ers at implementation or field/ Action level
...
Here NGOs play
a bridging role between government and the people
...
After NGOs have advocated for
equitable distribution of national resources during the budget process, they monitor whether these resources reach
the intended beneficiaries and whether they translate into
‘value for money’ (getting the best outcome using limited
financial and human resources) for end users
...

ˆ As innovators: NGOs are sometimes instrumental in

the introduction of new approaches and techniques which,
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ˆ As Partners: NGOs work in partnership with Govern-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
when adopted, bring considerable benefits to the poor
...

ments and Donors in the planning process by offering expertise, experience and whether possible logistics and other
resources
...
NGOs particularly those working closely
with CBOs and which believe in the efficacy of ‘empowerment’ approaches can be an important asset when government wants to mobilize people
...
4
...
Comparative Strengths of NGOs in Development
Because they are able to facilitate a relatively high degree of
community participation, they can accurately identify the specific needs of a community (Cernea 1988:17)
...

This is because the members of the NGO may live in the community or even belong to the community which they serve
...
This
is because communities might feel that such initiatives are their
own, arid effectively address their own needs and interests
...

The high degree of community participation creates a conducive environment in which local knowledge and technology can
be utilized and adapted to local development needs
...

Because of their structure, which is not characterised by the
same bureaucratic nature as that of government, they are very
flexible and adaptive to local conditions and changes in the environment (Paulton £ Harris 1988:184)
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

5
...
2
...
In spite of this apparent endowment it is important
to note that there are certain limitations that can inhibit the effective functioning of NGOs
...

ˆ Inadequate staff training
...

ˆ Inability to effectively collaborate at appropriate levels

with govern¬ment services
...
Explain the difficulties encountered when income
statistics are used to determine standards of living?
Solution:
They do not consider others forms of wealth particularly that
which does not flow e
...
shares stocks etc
Does not consider the effect of inflation
Ignores population factor
It ignores the distribution of income
Divergence between social and private costs and benefits
Does not consider income is relation to effort

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Revision Questions

Exercise 2
...

What are the key obstacles faced by developing
countries in their industrial sectors and how can these obstacles
be overcome
...
Jhingan, M
...

2
...
(1990), Who Makes Economic Policy in Africa
and How? World Development, 18(8)
3
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

4
...
Liebenberg Sybert
...

6
...
Development, NGOs and Civil
Society, London: Oxford GB
7
...

8
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

Exercise 2
...

Inadequate staff training
...

Inability to effectively collaborate at appropriate levels with
govern¬ment services
...
O
...
ac
...

The notes, examples and exercises should be supplemented with a good textbook
...
To move back to the same
page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solution/answer
...
ac
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics

LESSON 6
Indicators of Growth and Development

A study of this lesson should enable students to;
ˆ State the Indicators of Growth and Development
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

Learning Outcomes

ˆ Discuss the importance of National Income Indicators
ˆ Discuss the limitations National Income Indicators
ˆ Explain Human Development Index (HDI) and its limita-

tions

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
6
...
Introduction
The advent of independence for many African countries promised
growth and development
...
One of the main challenges facing the African countries is their willingness and ability to keep track of the level of
well being of the people
...

Measurement of development in a country is important for a
number for reasons
...
Indicate the extent of economic and social well-being of
the people in a country
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...
Facilitate spatial and temporal comparisons of development
...
Serve as criteria for international aid
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

3
...
Some of the measures
of development include National income measures such as Gross
National Income (GNP) per capital income the Physical Quality of life Index (PQLI), Human Development Index (HDI) and
assorted Gender Participation measures such as Gender Empowerment Measure GEM
...
2
...
These are discussed
in next sections
...
2
...
Gross National Product
Since the 1950s, the dominant measure of a countries progress
was the Gross National Product (GNP)
...
GNP, measures
economic development is in terms of an increase in the economy’s
real national income over a long period of time
...
In the 1950’s economic development was

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identified with growth of GDP/GNP and per capita income
...
To achieve the targeted growth rate, economists
in the LDCs suggested rapid industrialization alongside with
urbanization
...
The most important stage
which caught the fancy of the LDCs was the ‘take-off’
...
It was
believed that the gains from the growth of GNP per capita would
automatically trickle down to the poor in the form of increased
employment and income opportunities
...

1
...
Economic welfare depends to a great extent on the level of national income
...

2
...
If the national income increases over years,
it means the economy is progressing and vice versa
...
The concept of the GNP facilitates to understand the economic problems of the country like unemployment, illiteracy, inflation, over population and so on
...
Gross National estimates also contain the figures of consumption, savings and investments in the economy
...
It is the rate of
savings and investment in the economy that determines
the rate of economic growth
...
With the help of Gross National Product estimates of various countries of the world, we can compare the standard
of living and the levels of economic welfare of the people
living in those countries
...
National income estimates are helpful to formulate ecoDocDoc
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
nomic policies
...
Similarly, no development planning is possible without national income
estimates
...

7
...
These are discussed as below:
1
...
g
...
By
excluding all such services from it the GNP will work out
less than what it actually is
...
Data are not available because accounts are not maintained properly
...
Because of illiteracy, most producers have no idea of quantity and value of their output and they do not provide
correct information regarding their activities
...
Because of under development, occupational specialization is not complete and there is lack of differentiation
in economic functioning
...

5
...
Such goods and services do have
value and meet the needs of the consumers
...
In calculating GNP, a good number of public services are
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
also taken which cannot be estimated correctly
...

7
...
But GNP as a measure of economic development has not been successful in reducing poverty, unemployment and inequalities and raising living standards
in developing countries
...
“In the developing world, at the end of
the decade; malnutrition is common, infant mortality is
high, life expectancy is low, illiteracy is widespread, unemployment is endemic and growing the redistribution of
income and wealth is severely skewed”
...

6
...
2
...
It represents the average income of
the people in a given year (income per head)
...

It is also the amount of goods and services produced by each

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individual in a country within a year and ready for consumption
...
The ability of national income to indicate
the standard of living of the country depends on both presenting
the statistics (GNP/per capita income) in the right way and on
our understanding the severe limitations of this concept as a
measure of living standards
...


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6
...
3
...
This signaled that something was wrong with the use of economic indicators to measure
development
...

There are a number of developing countries notably Kenya
which have experienced sporadic high rates of economic growth

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in the new millennium (2002-2007) but which simultaneously
showed little or no improvement or witnessed actual decline in
employment, equality and the real incomes of the bottom 40%
of their populations
...

Figures for GNP per capital give no indication of how national income is actually distributed and who benefiting most
from the growth of production
...
The particular difficulties with income
measures of development are discussed below
...
Other forms of wealth: National income statistics consider
the flow of wealth created by production, around the econ-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
omy
...
Thus national income statistics do not take
account of the well-being gained from, for example, owning a valuable painting or other non-economically measurable benefits that contribute to our welfare such as leisure
time, long holidays, job satisfaction, health, good friends
and pleasant surroundings
...
Inflation – A rise of GNP in money terms, may be accompanied by a fall in real terms (in terms of how many
goods and services we are receiving) because statistics are
recorded in money terms, and the value of money itself can
change
...
In measuring standards of living we are interested

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
in how many goods and services we will receive and not
in receiving more money that will buy less
...

The deflator reflects changes in the prices of goods and
services, purchased by consumers
...

3
...
Countries may have
similar level of GDP but considerably different levels of
GDP per head
...
In addition, a country have a rising GDP per
head not because the real output is rising, but due to a

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population decline
...
Distribution of income – The use of per capita as a measure of living standards presupposes that all peoples are
receiving the same proportion of the national cake
...
So, an increase in national income may be distributed among a small proportion of the population
...
Working hours: (Income in relation to effort) – An increase
in national income may be the result of longer working
hours and inferior working conditions perhaps also accompanied by longer journeys to work
...
2
...
Limitations of using National Income Statistics to
compare standards of living in different countries
1
...
However, although the conversion is simple
it may not be accurately reflect the internal purchasing
power of a currency
...
Distribution of Income – Although per capita income may
be similar standards of living may differ considerably because of income distribution
...

3
...
This does not
make them better off than Kenyans
...
Different pricing structures – Since price level differ but
countries in apparently high standard of living as reflected
by GNP and per capita income may be a distortion (giving
a picture that is unreliable)
...
Income in relation to effort – An increase in national income may be the result of longer working hours, inferior
working conditions or longer journeys to work thus an increase in income may be accompanied by a decline in the
standard of living
...
3
...

Since 1990 the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
has been presenting the measurement of human development in
terms of a Human Development Index (HDI) in its annual Human Development Report
...

The human development involves the process of expanding
human capabilities and access to opportunities in social, economic and political arenas and therefore the overall improve-

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ment in quality of life
...

Human development is measured by the human development
index (HDI) a composite index encompassing life expectancy, education attainment and standards of living as measured by per
capita income
...
HDI value for a
country is calculated by taking three indicators:
1
...

2
...
Progress
in education is critical for human development in its own
right to and because of its links health, equity empowerment
...
Standard of living as measured by real GDP per capita
based on purchasing power parity in terms of dollars (PPP
$): $100 and $40,000
...
It is calculated by dividing the sum of these three indices
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
by 3
...
The HDI value for a
country shows how far that country has gone in attaining on
average life expectancy of 85 years, access to education for all
and a decent standard of living, HDI ranks countries in relation
to each other
...
Countries with an HDI value of below 0
...
5 to
0
...
8 a high level
...
HDI reflects the positive
association between income on one side and health and education on the other
...
It draws attention
to the fact that some countries are far better than others at
converting wealth into opportunities for health and education
...

6
...
1
...

©2013

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of human development
...

v) HDI of a country tends to focus more attention on inequality rather than on other factors influencing human
development
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
vii) The HDI is less effective measure of human development
of cross-country performance at the top and of the league
table
...
The alternative
approach of taking the GNP per capita ranking and supplementing it with other social indicators is still a better
one (Todaro, 1994)
...
4
...
In Kenya, like in many other countries, there
are gross inequalities between men and women, Such gender inequalities are not just damaging to the interest of women but

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
also to people’s livelihood strategies as a whole
...
GDI measures achievements in basic human development adjusted for gender inequality
...

GEM measures gender inequality in economic and political
opportunities
...
520 compares quite
well with the value in the Global Human Development Report
2001 of 0
...
Kenya’s GDI has shown marginal increments over
the years, implying that the human development of women in

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
the country has improved (KHDR, 2006)
...
Rather it is a measure of human
development that adjust the human development index (HDI)
to account for disparities between women and men in the three
dimension of the HDI: along and healthy life, knowledge and a
decent standard of living
...

GEM is a composite indicator of representation of women in
political, administrative, managerial, professional and technical
positions as well as women’s share in total income
...
414
...
Looking at the components of the GEM index, it is very
clear that women’s participation in politics remains very low
...
5% of the parliamentary seats in Kenya
...

In Kenya Gender disparities still manifest themselves in the
form of differential access to decent income opportunities, and
positions, women are particularly disadvantaged as they are usually confined to long working hours and at the some time underpaid
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Sustained efforts have to be made not only to retain women
within the education sector but also promote their participation
in more technical subjects that equip them better for the marketplace
...

6
...
Conclusion
It is important to emphasize that to be truly meaningful development measures have to be consistent with national development
objectives of development
...

Example

DocDoc


...
Recent research
on the links between corruption, development and stability has
shown that:
Corruption invariably increases transaction costs and uncertainty in an economy while lowering efficiency
...

There are significant variations in the form and intensity of
corruption across and within regions
...

Corruption reduces the transparency of economic transactions by both State-owned and private sector firms while un-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
dercutting the State’s ability to raise revenues
...

Corruption weakens the State and its ability to promote development and social justice
...
Corruption is double jeopardy for the poor and unprotected
...

Corruption undermines the State’s legitimacy and, in extreme cases, may render a country ungovernable and lead to

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
political instability or even war
...
It is often
associated with poor accounting standards, weak supervision of
financial institutions, cronyism and nepotism
...
For example, corruption undermines regulations that are needed by society for public
safety such as building codes and environmental standards such
as restrictions on logging, effluent disposal or dangerous emissions
...
 What are the main problems associated with

Exercise 1
...

Distinguish between Gross National and Gross
Domestic products and account for the lower values of the former
in developing economies



Exercise 4
...

Explain the extent to which national income
figures accurately reflect changes in the standard of living of a
country over a period



Exercise 6
...
Does this imply that the standard of
living in South Korea is 950 times that of Kenya?
Exercise 7
...

In Kenya, the per capital income in Kiambu
county is higher than Kakamega
...
If Yes, why; and if No, why not?

1
...
UNDP- (2006) Kenya Human Development Report Nairobi:
UNDP
3
...
Jhingan, M
...

5
...
P (2000) Economics for a developing world

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
(4th ed) Longman: Longman

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

6
...
and Shaw R
...
Nairobi: IEA

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises

©2013

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Exercise 1
...

Serve as criteria for international aid
Exercise 1

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JKUAT SODeL

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
However, this cannot be achieved
overnight and neither does it have an end
...

In its endeavour to improve people’s quality of life, the development process faces many constraints
...

7
...
Scarcity of Capital
The most pertinent obstacle to economic development is the
shortage of capital
...

According to Todaro (2003) the vicious circle of poverty is “a
self reinforcing situation in which there are factors which tend
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
to perpetuate a certain undesirable phenomenon (poverty)
...

The state of low per capital income means poverty, because
the more obvious signs of poverty, namely poor diet, poor health
and poor housing are much the same in all countries
...

In this regard, poverty is both a cause and a consequence of
a country’s low rate of capital formation
...
They practice

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
subsistence farming, lack of mobility and have little connection
with the market sector of the economy
...
Low productivity leads to low real
income, low saving, low investment and to a low rate of capital
formation
...
Any
effort that aims at increasing national productivity is a useful
desire in breaking the vicious circle of poverty
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

7
...
Population Factor in Development
Most of the countries of the world including Kenya are facing
the problem of rapid growth of population
...
The population provides labour to produce different goods and services
...
The
size of population of a country has great importance
...
g
...
How to bring about a desirable balance between

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population and resources is a source of worry for development
planners
...
Similarly, if population is too small
then the resources of the country cannot be used properly and it
slows down the development process
...
According to the
United Nations Environment Programme Report (1991), this
pressure is expected to increase until world population stabilizes
at Ten Billion between 2050 and 2070
...


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7
...
HIV/AIDs as a Constraint Development
Health status of a population is a direct reflection of the socioeconomic development of a country
...
In Africa health care
services and said to be significantly better developed in urban
centres than in rural areas where the bulk of the population live
...

The emphasis on the importance of health as a strategy for
development is based on the fact that a healthy population is
not just a social by product of economic development, but a

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
precondition of such development (Kimani, 2004)
...

The provision of health services is not only a basic need but
also an essential condition for overall economic development
...
Its global strategy
of “health for all by the year 2000” meant that all people in all
countries are expected to have a level of health that allows them
to lead a socially and economically productive life
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Health as a factor in the development process needs to be
emphasised because, although there has been marked progress
in improving health conditions throughout the world, enormous
gaps still remain between the rich and the poor countries
...

To have a healthy productive population calls for two tasks:
to provide nutrition to improve the mental and physical wellbeing in children and adults; and to improve the control and
treatment of diseases
...
Malnutrition affects
more than 1 billion people who live in poverty in developing
countries (World Bank, 1991)
...


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The single most important health challenge that the world
is facing is the HIV/AIDS pandemic
...
The three diseases also have
a disproportionate impact on women and children
...
According to Kimani, E
...

In sessional paper No 4 of 1997 on AIDS in Kenya, HIV/AIDS
was declared a national disaster and the National AIDS Con-

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trol Council (NACC) was formed as a coordinating body for all
HIV/Aids programmes in the country
...
The
illness is age-selective in that it infects mainly those in the reproductive and productive age categories (15-49 years)
...
5% among adults (UNDP, 2004)
...
Infected people and care givers lose a
lot of time for productivity taking care of those with HIV/AIDSrelated illnesses
...
In addition, the care givers
spend a lot of their resources meant for capital formation and

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investment
...
The spiral effects of HIV/AIDS
on human development are as follows:
HIV/AIDS = less income = less health and education = more
poverty and HIV vulnerability
There are no strong indications that the epidemic is declining, casting doubts on the success of past anti-AIDS efforts
...
Medical treatment
of AIDs patients, which can prolong life and prevent loss of
productive labour has received little attention or funding
...
2% in 2002 to
about 6% in 2009
...

Whether HIV/AIDS incidence rises of falls in the future does
not fundamentally change the understanding that the disease
poses grave health and developmental problems in Kenya
...
Studies show that the macroeconomic
impact of AIDs in terms of declining GDP growth is about 0
...
5% in Africa (Bonnel, 2000)
...
4
...
Linking HIV/AIDS to Human Development

©2013

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
fare
...


Available research (Nalo and Aoko 1993) though not exhaustive, casts some light on the debilitating effects of AIDS on the
development activities in Kenya
...
Health sector
HIV/AIDS affects the health system by undermining its
capacity to perform, and by eroding the quality of care
and the state of health facilities
...
Health care services for AIDS patients such as hospitalization and antiretroviral or AZT drugs in Kenya are inadequate, given
that annual per capital public health expenditure in Kenya
is just about Ksh 300
...

2
...
However the education sector is
severely distressed by the AIDs scourge in the following
ways

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
(a) It lowers school enrollment as AIDS orphans increase
and as more children get infected with AIDS
(b) It increases child labour and child leaded households
following death of parents or guardians
...

(c) It directly leads to loss of teaching staffs and increases
teacher absenteeism
(d) It affects the quality of teaching and disrupts the organizational ability of schools with the loss of key
education officials and headteachers
...
Agriculture
Agriculture employs a large segment (80%) of the labour
force and accounts for 70% of Kenya’s export earnings
...
This means productivity will decline and knowledge about indigenous farming methods will be lost
...

It means that labour-intensive agricultural enterprise such
as sugar estates which depend heavily on outgrowers lose
reliable workers and farmers, and face losses arising from
absenteeism and increased medical and funeral costs
...

7
...
2
...
Prevention of HIV infection through information campaigns

3
...
Health care, counseling and social support for AIDS patients and
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

2
...
National coordination and mobilization of funds to cope
with the disease
The government went further to recognise AIDS as a development issue
...

The pandemic is forcing the government to spend a lot of
resources on HIV/AIDS patients which could improve quality

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of life elsewhere
...
Antiretroviral drugs, which subdue the symptoms of the illness, are not affordable to the majority
...

In terms of human development, HIV/AIDS increases poverty
by creating orphans who have lost parents and hence their source
of basic necessities of life
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
7
...
Corruption and Development
The World Bank defines corruption as “the abuse of public office
for private gain”
...
Public office can be abused for personal gain
even if no bribery occurs, through (cronyism) and nepotism, under pricing of state assets, collusion to divert public resource or
outright theft
...

The causes of corruption are usually complex and rooted
in a country’s policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development and social history
...
The opportunity for corruption is a function of
the size of rents under the control of a public official, the discretion that official has in allocating those rents and the practical
accountability that officials face for their decisions
...
Corruption can be highly concentrated at the top of a
political system and associated with political power or broadly
based at lower levels in the system, associated with administrative processes and discretionary powers
...

Corruption does not always involve the payment of a bribe
...
Obscure insider lending or trading practices and
improper or excessively risky financial schemes, often associated
with inadequate accounting and disclosure standards and/or
weak supervision, are other forms of corruption, usually referred
to as “financial fraud”
...
Pervasive and large scale financial fraud can lead
to systemic financial crisis and undermine social stability and

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
development
...
Recent research
on the links between corruption, development and stability has
shown that:
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

7
...
1
...
Corruption invariably increases transaction costs and uncertainty in an economy while lowering efficiency
...

2
...
Some developing
countries have less corruption than many industrialized

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JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
nations
...
Corruption reduces the transparency of economic transactions by both State-owned and private sector firms while
undercutting the State’s ability to raise revenues
...

4
...
It is regressive in the sense
that its costs and negative economic impact tend to fall
more heavily on small enterprises and on individuals in a
weak economic position
...
They pay a high share of

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5
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
monopoly rents and bribes, while they are often deprived
of essential government services
...
Financial fraud – it can undermine the soundness of financial institutions and contribute to systemic crisis
...

7
...
For example, corruption undermines regulations that are needed
by society for public safety such as building codes and
environmental standards such as restrictions on logging,

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
effluent disposal or dangerous emissions
...
Explain the role of leadership in development?

Solution:
It improves peoples morale in development matters
...

Define the term per capita income
...
Woods D
...
Frequently asked Questions about Community Policing
...
co
2
...
L
...
The Development Puzzle
...

3
...
(2001)
...
XXVI, No
...
Altman D
...
“Understanding HIV/AIDS as a Global

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Security issue” in Kelly L
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

5
...

6
...
Kimenji, Nyaga, R, Kimani D
...
(2004) HIV/AIDS in Kenya: Review of Research and
Policy issues
...
38
...

as average income, a measure of the wealth of the population
of a nation, particularly in comparison to other nations
...

Exercise 1
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises

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JKUAT SODeL

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING
P
...
Box 62000, 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat
...
ke
HRD 2102 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS

LAST REVISION ON July 9, 2013
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JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
This presentation is intended to covered within one week
...
Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag
...

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the responsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat
...
ke
...
1
...
It is the
human factor, which binds a group together and motivates it
towards goals
...
A person is said to have an influence on others when they are willing to carry his or her wishes
and accept his advice or guidance (Saleemi 1997)
...
Without effective leadership,
it is difficult for an organization or country to function effectively
...
They set up an organization or system which is

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
appropriate for the accomplishment of the stated goals
...

Leadership and governance are closely interrelated
...

8
...
1
...
Leadership is a process of influence exercised by the leader

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
on members of group
...

2
...
Without a group of followers, leadership cannot exist
...

3
...

4
...
It involves exercise of inter-personal
influence
...


©2013

JKUAT SODeL

5
...

6
...

Under one situation a manager may adopt an autocratic
type of leadership while in another situation; he may practice participative leadership style
...
Leadership is concerned with the laying down of goals
and policies for the followers, motivating them and cocoordinating their efforts to achieve the goals and also fulfilling the psychological needs of his followers
...
Leadership involves reconciliation of organizational goals
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8
...
Leadership and Development Process
©2013

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
with individual goals
...


For development to take place, i
...
, for there to be growth and
change, effective leadership is essential
...
They must instil values – whether it be concern
for quality, honesty and calculated risk taking or for employees
and customers
...
Effective leaders know that people commit themselves to

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
changes they have helped to develop (D’Souza, 1999)
...
John G
...
Also,
according to Peter F
...
Poor leadership can nullify the
soundest organisation
...
The leader
is the agent who helps smooth the pathway towards goal accomplishment
...

Sound leadership creates an urge for accomplishment and

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
transforms potential into performance
...
In the absence of good leadership, the organizational goals
would remain unfulfilled
...
This in
broad ways constitutes the basis of democratic governance
...
An effective interaction between the leader and his followers impacts positively on development
...
Anyang
Nyong’o (2007) argues that Singapore became the third coun-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
try in the world with the highest per capital income, and that
this, they did without much foreign aid, but with hard-nosed
good management of their society, fairness and enlightened authoritarianism which paid economic rewards
...
‘Unlike in South
East Asia where authoritarian could be said to have led to development, in Africa authoritarian, proved dismal as it presided
over under development, conflicts and the growth of misery for
many” (Ibid, 2007, pp
...
State power, in the hands of the
military or civilian elite, began to be seen as a instrument of the
personal enrichment of a few to the detriment of the majority
...
In the view of Kwan Yew (2000), the greatest
asset Singapore had was the trust and the confidence of the people
...
Good leadership is essential for effective development
...
According to (Ochola, 2007) a visionary
leadership can inspire people to accept major reforms, which a
leader without commitment and clear goals would find difficult
to achieve
...
Thus the leadership would have the capacity to promote
sustainable development by using their authority to harness the
human resources at their disposal to identify, process and to
implement the relevant projects
...

8
...
Importance of Leadership
Due to its crucial nature in development, it is critical to understand the importance of leadership
...
Motivating the People
Workers performance in most cases is pegged to their motivation
...
A leader gives character to the group and
sets the tone of the organisation
...
Morale building
Good leadership increases employee morale which in turn
ensures high productivity and stability in the country or
organization
...

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3
...
He develops good human relations
and facilitates interactions between the members of the
group
...
A good leader also sustains the enthusiasm
and secures the involvement of his subordinates in the organisation goals
...
It means that the leadership of
a nation must reinforce people’s belief in their own individual and collective ability to control and to be master

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
of their own destiny
...
Confidence to
effectively manage change which is necessary particularly
in underperforming African economies
...

4
...
This

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5
...


A leader provides guidance to the group by setting and
interpreting the objectives
...
The leaders not only set to goals towards
which development activities should be aimed but also interpret those goals accurately and innovatively in order
to push through the development programmes that contribute to national economic progress and which ensures
the achievement of individual personal satisfaction
...
Facilitates Change
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
achievement of South Korea demonstrates that the success
of the country was achieved because the leadership often
set over ambitious but achievable goals in order to accelerate economic growth and to achieve the agreed objectives
and goals with a specified period (Ochola, 2000 pp
...


Leadership is the mechanism to convince people about the
need for change
...
In a world
of change and uncertainty, the national leader becomes
a vital element in the very process of change itself
...
According to Chege 1992
Change can only be championed by people in position of
leadership
...
The strict application of these principles
in carrying out work should enable the state to mobilize
its best talents and minds to help the state direct its energies in addressing the challenges of wealth creation and
the eradication of poverty which now drains the confidence
of millions of the poor the African people and cripples economic growth in Africa
...
4
...
(Musambayi, et al
2007)
...
In a
country the success if a national leader lies in the ability to
secure political stability and continuity, socio economic development, and national integration for the benefit of the present
future
...
According to Ochola (2007) Africa must accept the basic
fact that its misfortunes emanate from bad and poor leadership

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
provided by “a political class that is benefit of elementary moralities and which suffers from an acute “intellectual bankruptcy”
[Makau Mutua (2004) as quoted by (Ochola (2007) pg
...
This has disempowered the people and in the process demoralized and undermined
their confidence in whatever the leader’s champion
...
This phenomenon was
not unique to Kenya; but has been the cause of corruption and

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
underdevelopment in Nigeria, Uganda, Democratic Republic of
Congo (Formerly Zaire) and many other African countries
...
5
...
In this section, however, we shall discuss only three
categories of leadership:
1
...
Behavioral theory
3
...
5
...
Trait Theory
The trait theory seeks to determine the personal characteristic or traits of a successful leader
...
t
...
To determine the personal traits of a successful leader,
studies were conducted by selecting successful leaders and find
out their traits
...

But this theory suffers from many limitations
...
It emphasis mainly personal traits and does not consider
the environment or situation in which they have to be apDocDoc
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
plied
...
There is no common list of traits found in successful leaders
...
It assumes that leadership is an in-born quality and cannot
be acquired
...
There is no objective criteria to measure individual traits
of leaders
...
It presumes that personality traits are relatively stable
across time, consequently failing to offer a guideline for
leadership development
...
Their theory indicates that a leader should
have certain personal traits
...

The strengths of this approach are that

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

ˆ It is intuitively appealing - it is built on the premise that

leaders are different and their differences reside in the special traits they possess
...

ˆ It has a century of research to back it up - it is the only

theory that can boast of the breadth and width of studies
conducted on it
...

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The criticisms of this approach are that: ˆ It fails to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits
...
It identifies what traits we should
have and whether the traits that we do have are the best
traits
...

ˆ This approach ahs resulted in highly subjective determi-

nations of the “most important” leadership traits
...
It fails to address how leadership traits affect group
members and their work
...
Teaching new traits is not easy process
because traits are not easily changed
...
This approach states that the
leader uses three skills to lead his followers
...
e
...

proficient in a specific type of work or activity and is most
important at lower levels of management
...

ˆ Human Skill which is having knowledge about and being

able to work with people (subordinates, peers and supervisors) to successfully accomplish the organisation’s goals
...

ˆ Conceptual Skills which involve the ability to work with

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ideas
...

It is important for leaders to have all three skills, but depending
on where they are in the management structure, some skills are
more important than others
...

Strengths of Skills Approach include:
1
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
2
...

3
...

Criticisms
1
...

2
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3
...

ˆ It’s a leader-centred model that stresses the importance of
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Strengths
developing particular leadership – it’s the first approach
to conceptualize and create a structure of the process of
leadership around skills at all management levels
...

ˆ It provides an expansive view of leadership that incorpo-

rates a wide variety of components
...

ˆ It’s weak in predictive value – it does not explain how skills

8
...
2
...


In this approach, the emphasis is on actual behavior and action of the leaders and not on their traits or characteristics
...

This theoretical approach to understanding leaders creates
categories of styles that are aligned with the actions the leader
may take or methods they use to reach their goals
...
Determining goals, motivating employees for achieving the goals,
effective communication ability to interact effectively, building
team spirit, etc are the functional behavior of a successful leader
...
However, one limitation of this
approach is that a particular behavior or action of a leader may
be relevant and effective at a particular point of time and at
another, it may be irrelevant and ineffective
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
8
...
3
...
In other
words, the situation, - the group, the problem and its environment – will affect the type of leadership
...

The leader recognizes his followers’ desires and follows such
methods (depending on the situation), which satisfy them
...
In other words, situational emphasizes that there one
best style of Leadership University applicable to all situations

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
and that the leader has to change his style of leadership from
situation to situation
...
For example, Winston
Churchill was the most effective and successful Prime Minister of
Britain during the period of the Second World War, but he was a
flop afterwards when the situation changed
...

This is a leader-match theory which means it tries to match
leaders to appropriate situations
...
Effective leadership is contingent on matching a leader’s style to the right setting
...

Styles in contingency theory are either task motivated or
relationship motivated
...

Contingency theory suggests that situations can be characterised by assessing three factors: leader-member relations, task
structure and position power
...

1
...
Task structure refers to the degree to which the requirements of a task are clear and spelt out
...
It is positive and subordinates trust and get along with their leader
...

3
...
It is important to
point out that contingency theory stresses that leaders will not
be effective in all situations
...
The theory is supported by a great deal of empirical research
...
It forces us to consider the impact of situations on leaders
...
It is predictive and therefore provides useful information
regarding the type of leadership that will most likely be
effective in certain contexts
...
It is advantageous because it does not require that people

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
be effective in all situations
...
It provides data on leaders’ style that could be useful to
organisations in developing leadership profiles
...
It fails to explain fully why individuals with certain leadership styles are more effective in some situations than in
others
...
It is cumbersome to use in real world settings because it
requires assessing a leader’s style as well as the three situational variables
...
It fails to explain adequately what organisations should
do when there is a mismatch between the leader and the
situation in the work place
...
It also points to changes that upper
management might like to make in a lower level position in order to guarantee a good fit between an existing manager and a
particular work context
...
5
...
Transformational Leadership
This is a process that changes and transforms individuals
...
It incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership
...
Transactional leadership
refers to the bulk of leadership models, which focus on the
exchanges that occur between leaders and their followers, e
...
,
politicians who win votes by promising no new taxes are demonstrating transactional leadership
...

This type of leader is attentive to the needs and motives of followers and tries to help followers reach their fullest potential e
...

Gandhi raised the hopes and demands of millions of his people
and in the process changed himself
...
To

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ˆ It is supported by a great deal of research
...
They create a vision and also act as change agents who
initiate and implement new directions within organizations
...

ˆ It treats leadership as a process that occurs between fol-

lowers and leaders, as it incorporates both the leaders and
followers needs
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ˆ It is an effective form of leadership as it is positively related
to subordinate satisfaction, motivation and performance
...

ˆ It treats leadership as a personality trait or personality

predisposition rather than a behaviour in which people
can be instructed
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ˆ It has the potential to be abused
...
6
...
Different leadership
styles may adopt by the leaders at different time and in different circumstances
...
A brief explanation of these three styles is as
follows:

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8
...
1
...
He decides policies for the
group without consulting the group and also asks the group
to take steps as per policies determined by him
...
He does
not inform the employees the purpose of the orders given to and
does not inform about the future plans
...

Such leadership is negative because the followers are uninformed,
insecure and afraid of leader’s authority
...
They are:

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Strict autocrat (exploitative-autocrat): A strict autocrat is one who relies on a negative influence and gives orders,
which must be obeyed by the subordinates without question
...

Benevolent autocrat: A benevolent autocrat is one who
uses a positive motivation style
...
This style is effective in getting higher productivity and
in developing good human relationships
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ii) As a single person takes the decisions, it permits quick
decision- making
...

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iii) The disadvantages of this style are:

v) Lack of motivation, low morale, frustration and insecurity
affect organizational efficiency
...

vii) Future leaders in the organization do not develop
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Disadvantages
ˆ Employees dislike it because of its strictness and negative
ˆ Lack of motivation, low morale, frustration and insecurity

affect organizational efficiency
...

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motivational style
...


8
...
2
...
He also seeks their advice and opinions on
matters, which affect them and their jobs
...
It increases the acceptance of management’s ideas ands
reduces resistance to change
...
Participative leaders have a high concern for people and work
...
As the ideas and suggestions of employees are considered
for decision-making, they are highly motivated and their
morale also is high
...
The decisions are implemented whole-heartedly and the
employees’ productivity is increased
...
It reduces the number of grievances of employee’s
...
It seeks to evolve a self-regulating and self-disciplining

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
mechanism
...
Good relationship between the leader and the followers can
take place
...
As the subordinates are involved in the decision making
process, there is a possibility of making a better decision
process, there is a possibility of making better decisions
...
Lower level of employees may not understand the complex nature of organization and hence their participation
cannot be effective
...
This style of leadership can at times be dilatory and subject to pulls and pressures from different groups
...


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8
...
Laissez fair or free rein style
Under this style of leadership, the leader entrust decision-making
authority to his subordinates
...
He avoids using power and
leaves it to his subordinate to establish the goals and work out
the plan to attain the goals
...

This style of leadership can be adopted only if the subordinates have a sincere desire to discharge their responsibilities,
and are highly competent and duty conscious and motivated to

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8
...
Choosing a Leadership Style

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
do the job eve without any direction by the manager
...

Hence, this style is used very rarely in business concerns
...
Different management experts have suggested different styles and
there is no unanimity among them as to which are the most
suitable for an enterprise
...
Rensis Likert
...
As different leadership styles have their merit and demerits, it is difficult to prefer
one leadership style to another
...
Forces in the Leader
...
According to Tannebaum and Schmidt, the more important factors that affect the choice of suitable style of leadership
are:
These includes Leader’s
...
Forces in the Subordinates
...

3
...

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Example
opment?


...

Describe some of the main advantages of autocratic leadership styles
©2013

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Exercise 1
...
Ochola, S
...
(2007)
...
” Nairobi : Kenya Literature Bureau
...
Goran, H
...
“Governance and Study of Politics”
...
Goran and M
...
1-26 Boulder: Lynne Rienner
3
...
P
...
Chege, M
...
Research and Resource Forum, Remembering Africa, African Research Bulletin, Foreign Affairs,
71

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Vision for Kenya’s Social-Political and Economic Transformation
...


5
...
From Third World to First: The
Singapore Story, 1965-2000
...

6
...
(2007)
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Solutions to Exercises

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Exercise 2
...

As a single person takes the decisions, it permits quick decisionmaking
...
O
...
ac
...

The notes, examples and exercises should be supplemented with a good textbook
...
To move back to the same
page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solution/answer
...
ac
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics

LESSON 9
The Role of Information and
Development
Learning Outcomes
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Communication Technology (ICT)

A study of this lesson should enable students to:
ˆ Explain the position of ICT in development
ˆ Discuss the forms of ICT and their application
ˆ Describe the use of ICT in the various sectors of the econ-

omy
ˆ Discuss the obstacles hindering expansion of ICT
ˆ Appreciate the role of ICT as the driver of globalization
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9
...
What is Information and Communication Technology?
It is not easy to come across a comprehensive definition of Information and Communication Technology (ICI)
...
It is difficult
to keep up with the changes
...

Consequently, ICT is easier to describe than to define
...
In the Information Age there are
so many such gadgets that their list can never be exhaustive
...
Thus ICT is concerned with the management and exploitation of data
...

Thus, IT can be perceived as the catch-all idiom employed
to explain a wide array of technologies used in varied extents for
gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analyzing and transmitting information
...

In conclusion, therefore, when we think of ICT, the following
must come to mind:

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
1
...
Techniques and procedures used with the software and the
technology;
4
...
Reduction in costs of communication;
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2
...
Versatility; and
7
...

On a more convoluted front, study of ICT would also encompass
exploring the nature of information focusing on its societal value,
how and who controls it, legal issues - copyright, privacy, information tights, etc
...
Delicate information management requirements e
...
keeping information secure, processing
and distribution of information as well as designing, deploying
and maintaining networks to share information among individuals, organizations, groups and societies would also be covered
...
However, for the scope this book we
will hub on the new technologies and application in enriching the
structure and process of inter and intrapersonal communication
...
2
...
They include:
1
...
Satellite systems

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
3
...
Televisions

6
...
Mobile telephones
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5
...
Scanners
9
...
Beepers
11
...
Hand held devices
13
...
Portable Digital Assistant (PDA)

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
15
...
Networked systems

9
...
Practical uses of ICT Communication

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17
...
There are many communication tasks that
can now be done better using mobile phones, computers and
personal planners that used to be done using letters, face to
face meetings and diaries
...
Networking enables sharing of resources, remote access, etc
...
blogs, discussion
boards, chat rooms and forums facilitate instantaneous sharing

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9
...
1
...
Free telephony
services like Skype already exist for international calls and short
message services; Scanning of documents and/or storing and
sharing them electronically saves time, storage space, costs, etc
...
These include air traffic control, monitoring
of freight, navigation of maritime vessels and logistical support
to transport operations
...
g
...
Plans are also underway to digitize

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
documents such as drivers’ license and vehicle logbooks in a bid
to facilitate ease of access and management of the information
contained therein
...
For instance, in
South Africa ICT systems support parking of vehicles, boarding
of public taxis (matatus), traffic control and monitoring
...
ICT in transport basically results in efficiency, greater
control, convenience, cost reduction and discipline
...
3
...
E-Government
E-Government is the use of new ICTs to transact government
business
...
The concept, as

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we know it today, was first used by the United States government under former President Bill Clinton in 1998- 1999
...
The Government of
Kenya (GOK) launched e-government strategy and directorate
in March 2004
...
Enhancement of transparency, accountability and g governance;
2
...
enabling citizens and businesses to access government services and information as efficiently and as effectively as
possible through the use of the Internet and other emerg-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ing channels of communication
...
To date all government offices in Nairobi have been networked through a mesh of
Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs)
forming the Government Common Core Networks (GCCN) which
enables its officers to collaborate in performing their roles
...
Work is also ongoing
to network all the provincial headquarters and link them to the
GCCN
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
The GOK is also working together with CISCO, a leading telecommunication technologies solutions provider, to install
video conferencing facilities in all its major offices
...
President’s and Prime Minister’s
offices to enable them to interact in real time and consult while
seeing each other
...
Definitely this
reduces costs of operation and consultation and ultimately enhances efficiency in the government
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
9
...
3
...
They have also enabled seamless interaction bet learners and other learners as well as between teachers
...
Distance learning, virtual lean and e-learning are
all education services founded on the benefits of ICT systems
...
In 2004 the Ministry of Education and
the private sector formed the ICT Trust Fund to
...
The most visible of

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
these is the NEPAD e-School Initiative which aims at equipping and connecting schools with ICT networks and a minimum
set of ICT tools (radio, computers, TV Internet,
...
In implementing the project President Mwai Kibaki launched the pilot
e-School project in Kenya at Isiolo Girls Secondary School in
2006
...

The mainstreaming of mobile telephony in education is also
in progress
...
These, systems can be based on SMS/MMS,
or audio media, through which students can interact, seek and

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
receive desired educational support from other learners or educators
...

Such initiatives are bound to have great impact given the uptake levels of mobile phones in Kenya
...
They have also enabled seamless interaction bet learners and other learners as well as between teachers learners and
other teachers
...

There are many e-learning initiatives in Kenya coordinated by
the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), SchoolNET, African Virtual University (A Eduvision, Global Educational Partnership (GEP), Kenya Educational Network Trust

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
(KENET), Computer for Schools and a number of ICT-mediated
education organisations
...
spearhead
adoption of ICT for education in Kenya
...
telephone,
etc) to improve the provision of education in Africa
...
Other schools earmarked for the project are Mumbi
Girls (Central), Maranda High (Nanza), Chavakali Boys (Western), Menerigai High (Rift Valley) and Wajir Girls (North Eastern)
...
Recently Nokia launched a project to support Mathematics learning (numeracy) through e-learning systems operating on mobile phones
...
Though the project is in its infancy stages,
it can be considered a harbinger of similar projects in the near
future
...

9
...
4
...
However, the continent still
bears the heaviest burden of all these
...
03 million people
who died in 2005, 10
...
8%) were from Africa
...
Even though Africa has the weakest health systems, one
of the greatest impediments of effective disease management in
Africa is lack of relevant information
...
The other challenges
include poor leadership and governance; extreme shortage of
health workers; rampant corruption in medical supplies; and
lack of adequate health funding
...
This is most critical in
rural setups where health facilities are sparsely located
...
ICTs
also support health knowledge systems by facilitating creation
and access to clinical information, telemedicine, continuing medical education and exchange forums ICTs have also been used
to create and sustain versatile health management information
systems facilitating better planning, implementation and monitoring of health programs and interventions
...

ICTs have been used extensively in telemedicine through

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
computer aided operations (diagnosis, etc), expert systems, patient monitoring equipments, etc
...
Dr David Green, a Cape Town physician has devised the cell phone based Prompted Self Administered Therapy
(PSA’T) that utilises SMS to remind his patients to take their
TB medication
...

In Kenya, AfriAfya (also known as African Network Health
Knowledge Management and Communication) has initiated a
number of ICT facilitated health interventions it countryside
...
The network is currently
implementing projects all over the country
...
3
...
Agriculture
The economies of developing countries heavily rely on natural resources
...
Kenya is no exception as
Agriculture remains the cornerstone of the economy
...

Agriculture also provides the bulk of organic foods that most
of the population relies on
...
Over-rellance on natural
resources such as rainfall has constrained the levels of production
in the sector and greatly affects food security in the country
...
ICTs, particularly, have been
singled out as potential tools of transformation the sector
...
It reports that its surveys indicate that agricultural stakeholders are keen on improvements in processes such as information dissemination, access,
and exchange; and communication, participation, network/community
building activities amongst rural stakeholders (WSIS, 2007)
...

Generally, ICT tools have been used to strengthen far organizations, increase access to credit, improve farm management,
disease and pest control, disseminate publications, facilitate dis-

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9
...
The ICT Industry in Kenya

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
tance learning, develop market systems and enhance extension
services
...


1
...
There is no facilitative legislation in place to support the
expansion and widespread adoption of ICT services and
tools
...
It is
still under review;
3
...
Public sector ICT tools are mainly donations which ordinarily out of date and cannot be effectively used;
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

4
...
Driven generally by profit minded organisations out to t
maximum returns on their investments; and
7
...

9
...
Factors hindering widespread use of ICT in Kenya
There are many factors that have hindered faster and widespread
adoption of ICTs in Kenya
...
To date, a vast majority (about 80%) of Kenyans live in areas where these amenities
are either dilapidated or non-existent
...

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Inadequate infrastructure

High costs
The costs of acquiring, accessing and maintaining ICT services
and equipment is beyond the reach of most Kenyans
...
The cheapest computers,
for instance, cost more than these people can spend in a year!

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Even the proposed locally assembled Madaraka PC is still too
costly for the ordinary citizens
...
It is estimated that about
30% of adult Kenyans do not know how to read and write
...

ICT knowledge is another facet of this illiteracy
...
Basic computer literacy, for instance, is still quite low
...


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Proximity of ICT services
Most ICT services are concentrated in urban centres for economic reasons
...

This adds to the costs of accessing ICT which in turn restricts
it to the exclusive privilege to urban dwellers and the rich
...
An ICT
policy was drafted in 2006 to seal this gap
...
A thriving ICT sector can only exist
with supportive legislations
...


©2013

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ICT Championship
Kenya lacks an ICT champion who can market the benefit of ICT
tools to the people and encourage them to harness it
...
Kenya needs to identify and
use an appropriate champion to promote the potential of ICTs
...
Women and youth, who are the
majority, are generally disadvantaged and so cannot effectively
use ICT tools as expected
...
6
...
People around the globe are now more connected to each other than
ever before
...
Goods and services produced in one part of the world are
increasingly available in all parts of the world as well
...
International communication
is commonplace
...

Globalization gained prominence in the 1980s
...
The fall of protectionist barriers has stimulated
free movement of capital and paved the way for companies to
set up several bases around the
world
...
Globalization has some negative implications for the developing countries
e
...

1
...
Reduced national sovereignty making macroeconomic management by domestic governments difficult;
3
...
Strengthens the position of the developed countries which
are able to take advantage of the technologies, etc
...
Discuss the role of ICT in research and development?



©2013

JKUAT SODeL

Solution:
Useful in publication of research findings
Improves accuracy or research work
Improves marketing and marketing and buying and selling
of goods
...

Describe the globalization negative implications towards the developing countries
©2013

JKUAT SODeL

Exercise 1
...

Exposes their economies to external forces over which they
have no control
Reduced national sovereignty making macroeconomic management by domestic governments difficult;
Declining taxation and customs regimes
Strengthens the position of the developed countries which
are able to take advantage of the technologies, etc
...
O
...
ac
...

The notes, examples and exercises should be supplemented with a good textbook
...
To move back to the same
page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solution/answer
...
ac
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics

LESSON 10
Ethical Dimension in Development

©2013

JKUAT SODeL

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Introduction
Ethics is a discipline or branch of philosophy which deals with
theories of value and their application to human life
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Thus an action is ethical when it is
praiseworthy and unethical if it is blamable
...
It
seeks to identify what makes such acts as euthanasia, abortion,

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
suicide, torture, capital punishment, murder, cruelty, corruption, pornography, theft same sex marriage and homosexuality
wrong
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Ethical actions are subject of moral language and hence liable
to be approved or disapproved as right or wrong, good or bad,
just or unjust
...
Emphasis that
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that grapples with the questions
“How ought man to live”and“What is the good life for man”
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
The study of ethics enables us to differentiate right from
wrong
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A dilemma is taken as a choice one has to make between two
different alternatives none of which is desirable
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(Oruka, 1990)
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C
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C
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” Ethics is concerned with kinds of values and morals an

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
individual or society finds desirable or appropriate
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Ethical theory provides a system of rules or
principles that guide us in making decisions about what is “right
or wrong’ and “good or bad’ in a particular situation
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There is a tendency to use the terms Ethics and
morality interchangeably
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Therefore one can talk of the ‘morality if capital punishment”
and “Ethics of capital punishment” without fearing that they are
repeating themselves
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Thus while morality tends to be descriptive, ethics is
basically normative and analytic
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It is concerned with the nature of the common good
and its definition
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The choices that
people make and how they respond in a given circumstance are
informed and directed by their ethics
...
But at all levels of development, three essential ones are for people to lead a long and
healthy life, to acquire knowledge and to have access to the re-

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
sources needed for a decent standard of living
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In Africa, research in selected areas has
confirmed that there is a link between unethical practices and
slow economic development particularly with regard to corruption
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Inflation, unemployment and stagnation in economic development are the
consequences
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In addition, injections
from foreign aid are reduced due to donor apathy and loss of
confidence in the government
...

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1
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In the history of ethics, many
thinkers have tried to use the process of reasoning to establish principles on which we can rationally base all our ethical
judgments
...
In other words, only reason is the authority
in ethical judgement
...
As a guide to development decision making,

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
ethics relies entirely on reason to guide its course
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Customs are based on the repositories of people’s traditions (Mbiti, 1991)
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Other
customs are expressed in societal taboos, myths, dos and don’ts
in any society
...
they form what is regarded as peoples traditions
...
However custom, as a standard of

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
evaluating conduct, displaces objectivity in ethics
...
3
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Stated another way, ethical theories are about
the actions of leaders, on the one hand, and who they are as
people, on the other
...

Traditionally there have been two broad schools of ethical
thinking which have developed over the years
...

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1
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The question, ‘What is right?”
from the teleological perspective is answered by looking at results at the outcomes
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
In assessing consequences, there are three different approaches
to making decisions regarding moral conduct
...
A leader with this orientation would take a job or career that he or she selfishly enjoys
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Ethical egoism
is common in some business contexts in whi h a company and its
employees make decisions in ways that will achieve its goal or
maximizing profits
...

A second teleological approach is utilitarianism, which states
that we should behave so as to create the greatest good for

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
the greatest number
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When the Kenyan government allocates a large part of the budget to curative health
rather than for preventive health where it will have the best result for the largest number of citizens then its actions can be said
to be unethical
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The strongest examples of
altruist ethics can be found in the work of Mother Teresa, who
gave her entire life to help poor people
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3
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Deontological Theory
This theory is attributed to the 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
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He was against the idea that
the morality of an action is determined by its consequences
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” Whether or not a given action
is ethical rests not only with its consequences (teleological) but
with whether the action itself is good
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Telling the
truth, keeping promises, being fair, and respecting others are all
examples of actions that are inherently good, independent of the
consequences
...
The
consequences of their action though tragic would be irrelevant
to the moral worth of what they did
...
A leader’s actions are moral if the leader
has a moral right to do them, if the actions do not infringe
on others’ rights, and if the actions further the moral rights of
others (Schumann, 2001)
...
For

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
his actions he was impeached by U
...
House of Representatives
and then acquitted by the U
...
Senate
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Because subsequent hearings provided information that suggested
that he may have lied during his television speech, there were
many Americans who felt President Clinton had violated his
duty and responsibility (as a person, leader, and president) to
tell the truth
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
10
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3
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These theories are called virtue based theories,
and they focus on who leaders are as people
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Furthermore, it is believed that
virtues and moral abilities are not innate but can be acquired
and leaned through practice
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Although virtue theories have only recently regained their
popularity, their origin can be traced back in the Western tradition to the Greek period and the works of Plato and Aristotle
...
” Consistent with Aristotle, current advocates of virtue-based theories stress that more attention should be given to the development and training of moral
values (Valasquez, 2009)
...

What, then, are the virtues of an ethical person? There
are many, all of which seem to be important
...
For
Aristotle, virtues allowed individuals to live well in communities
...

In essence, virtue based ethics is about being and becoming
a good, worthy human being
...
When practiced over time,
from youth to adulthood, good values become habitual and part
of the persons themselves
...
Our virtues are
derived from our actions and our actions manifest our virtues
(Pojman, 1995)
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3
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Ethics and Development
Development has an ethical or normative point of departure it
seeks change or to ‘do good’, thus it intervenes in the lives of
others often claiming to know what is good for ‘the other’
...

Ethics is concerned with questions such as what should we do
and how should we conduct ourselves
...
Development studies is about
development (however defined)
...

In seeking to understand the nature the development process,
ethics has two roles
...
The second one is the political or normative role
...
In this way, ethics becomes a critical reflection and inquiry into the ultimate questions and explanation of the nature
of human life and social order
...
In
this regard, it means that the empirical role of ethics becomes
a means for evaluation and realization of the prospect of human beings in nature and the best mode of existence for human

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beings
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In its normative dimension, ethics reappraises social
order with a view to finding out the best social organization
suited for the promotion of general human well being
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This reconstruction entails the pursuit of humanist social
order that promotes quickly and security of human life, both at
individual and collective levels
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics

Figure 10
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As Kanbur (2006) put it, any definition of
development is dependent on ‘values and on alternative conception of the good life’
...
This is
how the International Development Ethics Association (IDEA)
defines the ‘ethics of development’, as within the framework of
the ethics of development ‘goals’ and ‘strategies’
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
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5
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The influence dimension of leadership requires the leader to have an impact on the lives of those being
led
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Because leaders usually
have more power and control than followers, they also have more
responsibility to be sensitive to how their leadership affects followers’ lives
...
In all of these situations, leaders have the ethical responsibility to treat followers with dignity
and respect as human beings with unique identities
...
While all of us have an ethical responsibility to
treat other people as unique human beings, leaders have a special
responsibility because the nature of their leadership puts them
in a special position, where they have a greater opportunity to
influence others in significant ways
...
Every leader should ideally
have a distinct philosophy and point of view
...
The values
promoted by the leader have a significant impact on the values
exhibited by the society
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It judges what is good or bad to be what is good or
bad for man and is incapable of extending this sort of judgment
to the rest of nature
...

Environmental ethics treats all inhabitants of the earth plus
the earth itself to be as holy or valuable as human beings are
...
This means that “an action or a thing
is ethically right when it tends to preserve the integrity, beauty
or stability of the biotic body community, it is wrong when it
tends to do otherwise” (Collicott,1989)
...
e
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This means
that for man to fully realize himself, he must fully identify with
the totality of the ecosystem
...
This ends up to be ecological monism as
the truth or reality that explains human life and its convection
with the totality of nature
...
3
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Reasons for Institutionalizing Ethics in Development
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To enable countries and organization to strike a balance
between its core objectives and its responsibilities to other
stakeholders and common good in general
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Here the function of ethics is to arbitrate between
the various particular interests which make the pursuit of
human development truly human enterprise
...
To enable the people and their leaders to avoid unethical
conduct (such as lying to customers or compromising on
the quality of a product) If a firm, organization or corruption hires good people, it will have strong ethical values
and this enjoy a good reputation
...

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To define unethical behaviour as well as clarify outcomes
if violations occur

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JKUAT SODeL

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Conclusion
Authentic human development acknowledges the human person
and the rights of that person as essential to human life
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Consequently state and communal decision making must be democratic and participatory if
authentic human development has to take place
...
Development
must acknowledge the role of the people and the main criterion

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
for goodness in development decision making should be the welfare or well-being of the community
...
This means that individuals must first become fully aware of their responsibility for the
other
...


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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
Revision Questions

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JKUAT SODeL

Exercise 1
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Using examples, explain the difference between
morals and ethics?
Solution:
Morals define personal character, while ethics stress a social
system in which those morals are applied



Exercise 2
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 Outline the application of teleological ethical

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
theory to development

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Exercise 4
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In your view, what are the weaknesses of utilization as a standard of determining what is moral and immoral?



Exercise 6
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Examine the view that Kant’s deontology is an
improvement over teleology in determination of



Exercise 8
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Imagine that as a leader you recognise the importance of environmental preservation
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Now assume that the government has recommended their
eviction from a forest to avert an environmental disaster in the
future
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The rapist, who has not yet been
apprehended by the police, approaches you and your daughter
(the victim) and asks for forgiveness from both of you
...
As a parent what would be your reaction to all this? Would you go along with the decision of your

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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
daughter? What would be the factor that would inform your
decision?

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References
1
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(2000) (eds) Poverty and Development into the 21st Century Oxford University Press:
Oxford
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Bert, F
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3
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(1995), Ethics for Modern life, New York: St
Martin Press
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A
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HRD 2102 Development Studies and Ethics
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Ethical Insight: A Brief Introduction London:
Mayfield Publishing

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W
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Ochieng Odhiambo, F
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Ethics Nairobi: University of Nairobi
Press
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S
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M Dent and Sons
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(ed) Ethics Oxford: Oxford University Press
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P
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Belmont ; Wadsworth
Publishing Co
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Odera Oruka, H
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Nairobi:
Standard Textbooks Publishing
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Odera Oruka, H
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(2008)
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Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth
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2005
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To enable the society or organization and its workers to understand and resolve ethical dilemmas that they encounter in
the course of business
To enable countries and organization to strike a balance between its core objectives and its responsibilities to other stakeholders and common good in general
...
Here the function
of ethics is to arbitrate between the various particular interests
which make the pursuit of human development truly human enterprise
...
In practice, Goldenberg and Anglo leasing
experience shows that organizations need to create trust for their
brands and products so as to enhance stakeholder loyalty

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