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THE

PILOT

general
navigation
ATPL
STUDENT
pilot
resume

all info you need to pass atpl exams

GNAV

The solar system:
st
1 law Kepler: Planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the foci
nd
2 law Kepler: Radius vector sun-earth sweeps out equal areas in equal time
Sun’s declination:
Angle between earth’s equator & sun rays
Northerly: Daylight in S hemisphere shorter
Angular distance of the sun N/S of the celestial equator
Sun’s position relative to the plane of the Equator
Plane of ecliptic:
o
Plane of which the earth travels around the sun, the earth’s axis is 23
...
5 inclination with the ecliptic plane
Yearly apparent path of the SUN around the EARTH
Inclination is the main reason for occurrence of the seasons
Apparent sun: Visible sun, always in the plane of ecliptic
Mean sun: Fictitious sun coinciding each year at spring equinox & travelling along celestial equator at uniform/constant speed
Difference between mean sun & apparent sun highest in February & November
Midnight sun: Sun visible for 24 hours
Perihelion: Closest, beginning of January [Highest speed of earth’s orbit]
Aphelion: Furthest, beginning of July
o
Cancer/Capricorn: 23
...
5N/S
Equinoxes: Length of day/night & rate of change of declination of the sun highest
Spring: Declination = 0
Autumn: Declination = 0
Earth’s rotation: Viewed from above North Pole = Counter clockwise
Solstice: Summer/winter, point when sun reaches its highest/lowest declination
Sidereal day: Describe a relationship concerning the stars
Apparent solar day: Varies continuously due to tilt of Earth’s axis & elliptical orbit around the sun
Solar system doesn’t include stars
The earth:
1NM = 1
...
Diameter = 12700km
Circumference: 21600NM
Halfway between two points, GCT = RLT
Convergence of meridians: Angular difference between meridians
Convergence angle: Angular difference between RLT & GCT
Great circle track (Orthodrome, radio bearings)
Rhumb line closer to equator
GC run through area of higher latitude
GC shorter than RL
Small circle: Does not pass earth’s axis
...
E
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E
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5deg) has the least effect on the amount of daylight with latitude
change
Directions:
NH
SH
PW
E
W
PE
W
E
First convert reference meridian to 000 prime meridian (Grid track + reference)
Convergency east true least, convergency west true best
True track increase NH, decreases SH
Grid convergence = Difference in direction between Grid North & True North
Grid convergence westerly: TN west of GN/for positions East of the grid datum meridian on NH
Grid convergence easterly: TN east of GN
Wind correction: R is (+) & L is (-)
True north: Direction of observer’s meridian to the North Pole, orientation of local meridian
o
Magnetic North moves 1 in 5 years
Earth is a magnet with the blue pole at the North Pole (North Canada) and direction of magnetic force straight down to earth’s
surface
Field direction is from magnet’s red pole to the magnet’s blue pole
Magnetic compass most effective midway between magnetic poles
Force acting on a needle of a DRC is directly proportional to horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
Total magnetic force strongest at the poles
Directive force: Resultant magnetic force in the horizontal plane in the position where the compass is installed
Increasing magnetic latitude = Increasing inclination & vertical component of the field
Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field:
Maximum at magnetic equator
Very small at the poles
o
o
Approximately the same at 50 N & 50 S
Equals to total strength at magnetic equator
o

Magnetic variation is max at 180
Magnetic variation westerly is negative (-), easterly is positive (+)
Variation is east when MN is east of TN
Magnetic equator: Horizontal & total strength of magnetic field are the same
Magnetic meridian: Horizontal direction of the Earth’s magnetic field in that position, toward the magnetic north pole
Deviation changes because the undesired magnetic pole is moved relative to the direction of the earth’s magnetic field
Compass deviation is a force in direction perpendicular to the compass needle
Compass deviation applied to compass heading to get magnetic heading [Important]
Compass deviation affected by: Magnetic latitude, aircraft heading & aircraft electronic equipment
Compass deviation decrease as latitude decrease as horizontal component becomes stronger
Compass free from extraneous magnetic influence: Magnetic heading
Compass affected by extraneous magnetic influence: Compass heading
Compass needle marked red is north seeking pole
Compass needle will align itself with the direction of the magnetic lines of force
Purpose of GRID: Provide a system for directions where a great circle has a constant direction even if true direction varies
Grid lines are all parallel to the reference meridian

GRIVATION: Grid convergence + variation/ difference between GH & MH
Agonic line:
Follows separate paths out of the North Polar Regions, one running through Western Europe, & another through US
o
Positions that have 0 variation
Positions where magnetic & true meridians are parallel
Isogonals:
Lines of equal magnetic variation
Converge at N & S geographic & magnetic poles
Isoclinals: Lines of equal magnetic dip
Aclinic: Line of zero magnetic dip
Isogrives: Lines of equal grivation
Strength of horizontal component: Tesla x cos (dip)
-1
Dip angle = cos (H/T)
Magnetic track angle: Direction of a line referenced to Magnetic North
Distances:
1NM = 1
...
28ft
1 inch = 2
...
54cm
General:
Aeronautical charts: Exact scale vary within the chart
“Scale”: The ratio of chart length compared to the Earth’s distance that it represents
Mercator chart:
Scale varies with 1/cosine latitude (secant)
Expands with secant of latitude
Based on a cylindrical projection
It’s a cylindrical projection but it is in fact mathematically produced
o
Convergency is 0
Not possible to represent N/S poles
Scale increases with increasing distance from the equator
Chart convergence = earth convergence at equator
Lamberts:
Chart convergence is constant & does not change with latitude
Chart convergence depends on latitude of parallel of origin & difference in longitude between the positions
Standard parallels: The latitudes where the cone cuts the reduced earth
Earth convergence is most accurate at the parallel of origin
Convergence of meridians at the parallel of origin = earth convergence
Scale: Correct along the two standard parallels
Scale is constant along a parallel of latitude (Parallel of origin)
Scale reaches its minimum value at the parallel of origin
Scale contracts between standard parallels, scale between differs only by less than 1% from stated scale
Scale is only correct at standard parallels
Chart convergency = Change of longitude x constant of cone
Chart convergency = Change of longitude x sin parallel of origin
Chart convergency = Change of longitude x chart convergence factor
Chart convergence = Angular difference between initial true track & final true track
Lamberts chart has to be processed mathematically to obtain conformity
Polar stereographic chart:
Scale reaches its minimum value at the North pole
It is a plane projection
Convergence factor = 1
Distance = Change of longitude x cos latitude
Track decreasing in easterly direction = Northern hemisphere
Track decreasing in easterly direction = Southern hemisphere
ABBA
Conformal meaning:
At any point the scale over a short distance in the direction of the parallel is equal to the scale in the direction of the
meridian & the meridians are perpendicular to the parallels
Scale is constant along a parallel of latitude
Bearings are great circles
A small scale map shows more area represented & less detail
Small scale = Large area in bad detail
Large scale = Small area in good detail
Basics of dead reckoning
1SM = 1
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2 US gallons = 4
...
454kg
Specific gravity = Mass ÷ volume

o

Above FL360, ISA temp is -56
...
4% x (PA + pressure correction – station altitude)]
o

Density altitude: 120ft per 1 ISA deviation
Density altitude = PA + density correction
Calculating heading & ground speed:
XWC = sin (wind angle) x wind speed
Drift = XWC x 60 ÷ TAS
Heading = Track +/- drift
HWC = cos (wind angle) x wind speed
Effective TAS = TAS x cos WCA
GS = Effective TAS +/- headwind/tailwind
o
***Effective TAS has to be considered for WCA > 10
Finding W/V
True index to track
Hole on GS
Line to WCA & TAS
Align dot to middle (Left = clockwise, right CCW)
Be careful to see (M) or (T) wind
Be careful to see CAS or TAS
Finding W/V by using TAS: Align index to HEADING & DOT to TAS
Finding GS
Set wind direction
Mark velocity to a reference (Above dot: Tailwind, below dot: headwind)
Turn to track, move mark over TAS arc
Compressibility factor 0
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g
...
2% for each 1 C deviation
3) Find average altitude
½ cruising altitude + remaining altitude
2/3 cruising altitude + initial altitude
4) Correction % = Altitude correction + temperature correction
5) Total correction = (1 + correction/100)
6) TAS = CAS x total correction
Navigation in cruising flight:
Total track correction = TKE angle along track + TKE angle to go
TKE = Planned track TO Current track
TKE = WCA



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