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Title: IB Geography Option A: Freshwater Issues and Conflicts
Description: Level 7 Geography notes for the IB Diploma, including the water system, drainage basins and flooding, management issues and strategies, and competing demands for water. Detailed yet succinct notes that directly answer the syllabus statement complete with diagrams and case studies.
Description: Level 7 Geography notes for the IB Diploma, including the water system, drainage basins and flooding, management issues and strategies, and competing demands for water. Detailed yet succinct notes that directly answer the syllabus statement complete with diagrams and case studies.
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FRESHWATER
The Water System
The hydrological
cycle
Examine the inputs, outputs, stores and transfers of the hydrological cycle
...
The hydrological cycle is a closed system in a dynamic equilibrium
...
It includes evaporation
from oceans, water vapour, condensation, precipitation, runoff, groundwater and evapotranspiration
...
g
...
A drainage basin is considered to be an
open system because water can be added or lost from a drainage basin
Inputs:
● Precipitation The transfer of moisture as dew, hail, rain, sleet or snow to the earth’s surface
from the atmosphere
Outputs:
● Evaporation the process of water turning from a liquid into a vapour
● Transpiration the evaporation of water from vegetation
● River runoff water entering the sea and leaving the drainage basin
Transfers:
● Throughfall when intercepted water drips from vegetation
● Stemflow when intercepted water runs down trunks and stems of vegetation
● Surface runoff (overland flow) water that does not soak into the ground but travels over the
surface of the earth
●
●
●
●
●
Infiltration water that moves from the surface of the earth to the soil below
Throughflow water that travels through unsaturated ground
Percolation water that travels from unsaturated to saturated ground
Groundwater flow (baseflow) water that travels through saturated ground
Channel flow water that travels in a river
Stores: when water is stationary and not moving in a drainage basin
● Interception water caught and held by vegetation
● Surface storage water held on the surface of the earth e
...
a lake, pond, puddle
● Soil water storage water held underground in unsaturated soil
● Groundwater storage water held underground in saturated rock
● Vegetation storage water held by vegetation e
...
in aquifers
● Channel storage water held in a river that is not moving
Feedback loops:
● A system is always trying to maintain a balance (equilibrium)
...
g
...
g
...
This is the crosssectional area ÷ wetted
perimeter
...
If it is below this, there is high friction due to the contact with the bed, banks and the
surface
...
Bradshaws model of channel variables
● Discharge increases downstream
○ Input from a greater amount of drainage
basin
○ Channel width increases
● Velocity increases downstream despite the
decreasing gradient
○ River becomes more efficient with
proportionally less contact with bed and
banks
○ Shown by the lower channel bed roughness
○ Poor efficiency of the river channel
upstream means 95% of a river’s energy is
used overcoming friction and not speed
The long profile
The long profile looks at how a rivers' gradient changes from
the source to the mouth
...
Examine the reasons for spatial and
temporal (shortterm and longterm) variations in hydrographs
...
● Rising Limb the increase in discharge on a hydrograph
● Falling Limb the return of discharge to normal flows
● Lag time the time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge (influenced by basin shape,
steepness and stream order)
● Peak discharge the highest amount of water in a river after a rain event
● Peak rainfall the highest amount of rain in a rainfall event
● Baseflow the seepage of groundwater into the channel
Forecasting floods
● Hydrographs can predict the return period of floods of different sizes through the use of
hydrograph records over a long period of time
● They can be used to predict the extent of flooding and how long it will last
● They can be used to predict flood height and arrival time downstream using lag times and stream
response records
● The lag time is short if the response is rapid (more prone to flooding)
● The rising limb is very steep if the response is rapid (generally in urbanised catchments, flash
floods or small drainage basins)
● The falling limb is steep in urban areas
● A hydrograph will be ‘peaky’ if most of the water travels by overland flow (urban)
● A hydrograph will be ‘flat’ if water is able to pass into the soil and travel by groundwater slow
(rural)
●
●
●
Peak discharge is higher in larger basins because steep catchments have lower infiltration rates
The more stream channels there are, the more water that gets into rivers
Lag time increases in a rounded basin
Other factors affecting hydrographs
●
●
●
Climate (rainfall total, intensity, season) heavy rain causes soil saturation, increasing runoff
Soils impermeable clay soils increases surface runoff and vice versa
Vegetation increases interception causing less surface runoff
A is an urban area
B is a rural area
Urban
Rural
• Shorter lag time
• Steeper rising limb
• Higher peak discharge
• Steeper falling limb
• Longer lag time
• Flatter rising limb
• Lower peak discharge
• Flatter falling limb
Urbanised places have more impermeable
surfaces such as concrete and tarmac,
encouraging surface runoff into drainage systems
which carry water quickly into the river
...
g
...
Deforestation also removes trees so there
is less interception
...
The sediment from
these forms one of the largest deltas in the world, and 80% of Bangladesh is located on this delta
∴ the country is only a few metres above sea level and is under threat from flooding and rising sea
levels
● Bangladesh is very densely populated (900 people per km2) and is going through rapid population
growth
Causes
● Natural
○ Snowmelt in the Himalayas (also a human cause due to global warming)
○ Heavy monsoonal rain this is seasonal between June and September and causes peak
discharges in all the major rivers
○ Heavy rainfall causes flooding outside of monsoon season
○ Heavy rainfall in India causes flash floods, effects intensified by deforestation (human
cause)
○ Storm surges caused by lowpressure systems are funneled up the Bay of Bengal causing
coastal flooding
● Human
○ Embankments and dikes (built to reduce flooding) have prevented the backflow of
floodwater into the river, leading to ponding of water (drainage congestion)
○ Embankments have led to an increase in deposition in drainage channels, causing
largescale deep flooding
○ Deforestation in Nepal affects flooding in Bangladesh by increasing sedimentation
Effects
● 4750 people were killed
● 66% of Bangladesh flooded
● 130,000 cattle killed
● Agricultural land and crops destroyed (660,000 ha of crops damaged)
● 400 factories closed
● 1000 schools damaged
● Sediment from the river forms temporary islands and sandbanks
● However, there are some advantages due to the flood waters:
○ Replenishing groundwater reserves
○ Providing nutrientrich sediment for agriculture in the dry season
○ Providing fish for food
○ Reducing the need for artificial fertilisers
○ Flushing pollutants and pathogens away from domestic areas
Management issues and strategies
Dams and
reservoirs
Examine the hydrological changes resulting from the construction of dams and
reservoirs
...
Dam: A barrier placed across a river
Reservoir: The artificial store (lake) that develops behind a dam
Hydrological changes
● Increased evaporation
● Increased groundwater stores (from water seeping through the bed)
● Reduced volume of water and discharge downstream
● May cause seismic stress (water on fault lines may cause downward pressures)
Costs
● Lack of water downstream
● Changes in water levels
● Displacement of population
● Salinisation
● Fauna affected
● Loss of nutrients
● Reduced flushing effect, causing less oxygenated water
● Spread of disease from stagnant water (Bilharzia snails)
● Excess deposition of sediment
Benefits
● Hydroelectricity
● Irrigation
● Control of water levels leading to reduced floods
● Tourism
● Transportation
● Urbanisation
Case Study: ASWAN HIGH DAM 1970
● Located in Southern Egypt in Aswan (a periphery that was upstream)
● Resulted in the Lake Nasser (manmade) reservoir
● Multipurpose scheme with the goal to regulate flooding, create a hydroelectric power scheme and
to increase agriculture by expanding the area using irrigation water
● Benefits
○ (Social) Reduced flooding
○ (Economic/Political) Reclaimed barren land for farmland using irrigation means less
dependency on food imports
○
●
●
●
●
(Economic/Environmental) Power station provides 45% of Egypt’s energy needs, saving 2
million tonnes of oil
○ (Economic/Social) Tourist attraction brings money to the Egyptian economy
○ (Economic) Fishing in Lake Nasser increased the local fishing industry
■ However the benefits from fishing and tourism are seasonal, whereas the
problems are not
Costs
○ (Social) Forced migration of people due to floods while the Dam was being built
○ (Social) Bilharzia snails prevented from being washed away as a food source for fish,
causing a decline in fish stocks in the Mediterranean and health issues in Egypt
○ (Social/Economic) Fishing communities have decreased fish catches sardine yields are
down 95% causing 3000 job losses
○ (Environmental) Increased sedimentation means less nutrients downstream
■ (Social/Economic/Environmental) More fertilisers are used to compensate
○ (Social) Relocation of the Abu Simbel temple made people question the authenticity of the
temple
○ (Environmental/Social) Crop yields have decreased due to salinisation of surrounding
fields, forcing farmers to use fertilisers
Some initial problems were only partially solved therefore the Dam was not entirely beneficial e
...
the dam was made for hydroelectricity, but due to the loss of nutrients, the hydroelectricity had to
be used to make fertilizers
The environmental costs undermined the whole project
Initially the main problem was just flooding, but now there are a bunch of other (possibly)
irreversible problems
Floodplain
management
Explain the stream channel processes (erosion, transport, deposition) and explain the
resultant landforms found on floodplains
...
Evaluate the costs and benefits of alternative stream management strategies
...
Types of erosion
● Hydraulic action water/air getting into cracks, building pressure and making bigger cracks
● Attrition when loads in a rivers flow crash into each other
● Solution (corrosion) when the acidity of the water causes bits of load and the bed/banks to
dissolve
●
Abrasion (corrasion) when bits of load crashes into bed and banks, causing pieces to break
Factors affecting erosion
● Load the heavier and sharper the load, the greater potential for erosion
● Velocity and discharge
● Gradient
● Geology soft rocks (sand/gravel) are easily eroded
● pH rates of solution are increased when the water is more acidic
● Human impact deforestation, dams and bridges interfere with the natural flow of a river
Types of transportation
● Suspension small particles of load being carried in a rivers flow (turbulent flow)
● Saltation load that is bounded along the bed of the river
● Solution dissolved particles transported in a solution
● Traction large load that is rolled along the bed of a river
● Flotation materials (twigs/branches) carried on the surface of a river
The processes of erosion and transportation make a rivers’ load smoother and rounder as it is transported
from the source to the mouth
...
The smallest and largest particles require high velocities to lift
...
Therefore its capacity and competence decreases,
causing it to deposit its load
...
g
...
• Increases flood size if the dam breaks
...
g
...
Examine the environmental impacts of
groundwater abstraction
Aquifer: Rocks that can hold water
Aquitard: A layer of rock that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another
Artesian basin: A confined aquifer (aquifer between two aquitards) containing groundwater under
positive pressure, causing water to flow upward through a well (artesian well) without pumping
Natural recharge: Groundwater naturally infiltrates into the ground from rain/seepage from lakes and
recharges the groundwater
Artificial recharge: Humans artificially recharges the groundwater from irrigation channels, reservoirs or
diverting water from river basins and pumping it into aquifers
At the recharge areas of the artesian basin, permeable rocks are exposed and water can naturally sink in
and is stored to the point of hydrostatic equilibrium (balance between pressure on the aquifer and pressure
from the aquifer)
...
Water
is restored from water transfer, either naturally or artificially
...
Evaluate the effectiveness
of the management strategies that have been adopted in a major wetland
Wetlands: Area of land with soils that are either permanently saturated or seasonally saturated e
...
marshes, swamps, floodplains, lakes, bogs, mudflats, deltas etc
...
Functions of wetlands
● Filters water/acts like a purifier
● Flood control vegetation intercepts precipitation, absorbs rainwater and transpires water
● Shoreline erosion protection plants hold the soil in place and break up currents/flows
● Groundwater recharge
● Creates habitats for different species, increasing biodiversity
● Provides food
● Tourism and leisure
Case Study: KISSIMMEE RIVER, FLORIDA
● Original wetland:
○ 185 km river meandered through central Florida
○ Heavy seasonal rains
○ Many wetland plants, birds and fishes
○ Flooding
● Management and impacts 19621971:
○ River was channelised deepened, straightened and widened
○ Added flood management
○ Caused a loss of ⅔ of wetlands
○ 92% less wading birds in the winter
○ River became more stagnant leading to the loss of fish and animals
○ Lack of flooding caused less recharge of aquifers leading to the groundwater becoming
more saline
○ Less absorption of nutrients by the wetlands caused Lake Okeechobee downstream to
have eutrophication from extra nutrients
● Concerns about the sustainability of the ecosystems led to a massive restoration project:
○ Aim to restore 100km² of river and associated floodplain wetlands
○ Dechannelisation and restoring the natural flow of water, however several flood control
locks were still maintained in residential areas
○ Restore the biodiversity of over 320 species
○ Decreased nutrient load in Lake Okeechobee
○ Support a natural ecosystem again
○ Potential revenue from increased recreational usage and ecotourism
○ Restoration costs 30x as much as the initial channelisation
Irrigation and
agriculture
Examine the environmental impact of agriculture and irrigation on water quality:
salinization, agrochemical runoff, the pollution of groundwater and the
eutrophication of lakes, rivers and wetlands
Agriculture and irrigation Causes
Impact
Salinisation
• Irrigation diversion of water from
rivers causes water to be drawn up
to the surface from the
groundwater, bringing salt with it
• Hot temperatures evaporate the
water and leave behind the salt
• Increases salinity
• Creates a white crust on the
surface of the soil
• Damages the sea’s ecosystems
• Freshwater is damaged and
cannot be used
• Salt can be blown over farmland,
killing plants
Agrochemical runoff
• Excess water from fields run back
into irrigation channels and back
into the river
• On farms where pesticides and
fertilisers are used, the runoff
carries pollutants
• The water will have a high
concentration of pollutants after
several cycles
• Also affects the plants and roots
which absorb it
Pollution of groundwater
• Pollutants can reach aquifers
• Contaminated water can cause
when rain infiltrates the ground,
health problems if consumed
including agricultural runoffs and
sewage pollutants
• Petroleum fuels can also enter an
aquifer drinking supply
Eutrophication of lakes,
rivers and wetlands
• Nitrates and phosphates from
fertilisers run into rivers or lakes,
causing nutrient enrichment
• Increase in algae bloom in rivers
or lakes, decreasing the dissolved
oxygen levels of the water
• Causes other organisms to die
Case Study: ARAL SEA CENTRAL ASIA
● Aral sea located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan
● It is fed by two rivers, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya
● Since the 1960s, the sea has been shrinking because the two rivers have been diverted to irrigate
the desert to increase production of melons, rice, wheat and cotton
● The irrigation canals were built so quickly, that 75% got lost through evaporation or leakage
● Only 12% of Uzbekistan’s irrigation canals are lined to stop leakage
● Between 19601988, the surface of the Aral Sea shrank by 60% and its volume by 80%
● By 2007 the Aral sea was 10% of its original size and the salinity had increased to 3x the salinity
of seawater
● The increasing salinity has killed the sea’s ecosystem
●
●
●
Salt plains are whipped up in storms, killing crops, cooling winters and warming summers
Fishing industry has collapsed
Residents’ health has worsened due to inhalation of salt, lack of clean water and food shortages
Competing demands for water
Conflicts at the local or
national scale
Examine the competing demands for water in a specific river basin
...
This lake would overflow and the water would flow across the Everglades in a
wide shallow ‘river’
...
5% per annum
● Lots of water is needed for tourists in Miami and Orlando
● Water is needed for agriculture
Strategies to meet the needs:
● Wells have been sunk into the limestone rocks for groundwater abstraction
○ However this has caused a saline problem because saltwater is being soaked to replace
the freshwater
○ The loss of water also means fires cause a lot more damage
● The government has begun to allow water to flow across the Everglades again
○ However if this is not released at the right time, it can still destroy the ecosystem
● Everglades was declared a national park to restore the environment
○ However this cannot control what happens outside the national park
○ Visitors enabled to see the Everglades while causing little damage
Case Study: COLORADO RIVER, MEXICO and USA
● The Colorado River flows from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado through Mexico to the Gulf of
California
● It passes through 7 states
● There is low rainfall and the environment is very arid, making water a scarce resource due to the
evaporation rates
Competing demands for water:
● Water needed for largescale irrigation in California for citrus fruits and rice (unsustainable)
●
Mexico requires water for its population, but the water that reaches it is poor quality and full of
salt due to irrigation runoff
Title: IB Geography Option A: Freshwater Issues and Conflicts
Description: Level 7 Geography notes for the IB Diploma, including the water system, drainage basins and flooding, management issues and strategies, and competing demands for water. Detailed yet succinct notes that directly answer the syllabus statement complete with diagrams and case studies.
Description: Level 7 Geography notes for the IB Diploma, including the water system, drainage basins and flooding, management issues and strategies, and competing demands for water. Detailed yet succinct notes that directly answer the syllabus statement complete with diagrams and case studies.