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Title: DNA and Meiosis - AQA
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.
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DNA and Meiosis
DNA and Meiosis
• Structure of DNA
• The Triplet Code
• DNA and Chromosomes
• Meiosis and Genetic Variation
DNA and Meiosis
Structure of DNA
Nucleotide Structure
• Nucleotides of DNA are made up of three components:
-‐ A sugar called deoxyribose
-‐ A phosphate group
-‐ An organic base belonging to one of two groups:
a) Single-‐ring bases: cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
b) Double-‐ring bases: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
• The three components are a result of a condensation reaction that gives a
single nucleotide
...
• Joined together by hydrogen bonds between the bases
...
• Base pairs must be made up of one from each of these types
...
The Double Helix:
• Double helix is a twisted ladder-‐like structure
...
• 10 base pairs complete one twist
...
Responsible for passing on genetic information from cell to cell
...
Adapted to carry out its functions in several ways:
-‐ Very stable so can pass on genetic material for generations
...
DNA and Meiosis
-‐ Very long so carries an immense amount of genetic information
...
• The function of a DNA molecule depends on its sequence of base pairs
...
• Polypeptides form proteins and so genes determine the proteins of an
organism
...
The Triplet Code
Only 20 amino acids regularly occur in proteins
...
Only 4 different bases are present in DNA
...
• A pair of bases would only code for 16 amino acids
...
• Sections that do not code for amino acids are called introns
...
• The remaining amino acids have between two and six triplet codes each
...
• Always read in one particular direction
...
• The codon is non-‐overlapping
...
•
•
•
•
ATC CGA TAT CCC CGC ATT GGC CAA AAT TGG GCG
TAG GCT ATA GGG GCG TTA CCG GTT TTA ACC CGC
DNA and Meiosis
DNA and Chromosomes
• In prokaryotic cells (bacteria), the DNA molecules are smaller, form a circle
and aren’t associated with protein molecules
...
• In eukaryotic cells, the DNA molecules are larger and linear
...
Chromosome Structure
Only visible when a cell is dividing
...
Each thread is called a chromatid
...
The DNA is highly coiled and folded
...
The coil is looped and coiled again before being packed into the
chromosome
...
• There should normally be an even number of chromosomes in an
organism as chromosomes occur in homologous pairs
...
• Always two chromosomes that determine the same genetic characteristics
but determining the same characteristics is not the same as being
identical
...
One chromosome may have the alleles for
blue eyes and type A blood and the other may have the alleles for brown
eyes and type O blood
...
• When these haploid cells combine, the diploid state (with paired
homologous chromosomes) is restored
...
Each individual inherits one allele from each of its parents
...
When different, each allele codes for a different polypeptide
...
• Leads to production of a different polypeptide chain
...
• This protein may be an enzyme which now has a different tertiary
structure and cannot form an enzyme-‐substrate complex meaning it is no
longer functional
...
Division of the nucleus happens in two ways:
• Mitosis: produces two daughter nuclei with the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell and as each other
...
Why is meiosis necessary?
• In sexual reproduction two gametes fuse to make an offspring
...
• Therefore, in order to maintain control of the number of chromosomes
passed on to each generation, the number of chromosomes must be
halved
...
• Every diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes
...
• This is known as the haploid number of chromosomes
...
In the first division (meiosis 1) the homologous chromosomes pair up and
their chromatids (copy of a chromosome) wrap around each other at the
centromere
...
By the end of this stage, the homologous pairs have
separated, with one chromosome from each pair going into one of each of
the daughter cells
...
In the second division (meiosis 2) the chromatids separate
...
Meiosis also brings about genetic variation by:
• Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes
...
DNA and Meiosis
Maternal
chromosome
Meiosis 1
Meiosis 2
Paternal
chromosome
Parent cell showing
a single pair of
homologous
chromosomes
Homologous
chromosomes are
separated into
different cells
Chromatids are separated
by a further division into
four cells each with a single
chromatid
• Gene: a section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide
...
• Allele: one of the different forms of a particular gene
...
• One of each pair passes to a daughter cell
...
• This is called independent segregation
...
• The alleles for these genes may differ
...
• Stage 1: one pair of chromosomes contains the alleles for eye colour
(brown and blue) and the other chromosome carries alleles for blood type
(type A and type B)
...
• Stage 2: At the end of meiosis 1, the homologous chromosomes have
segregated into two separate cells
...
The gametes
produced depends on the original arrangement of the chromosomes
...
• The second arrangement will produce gametes with blue eyes with blood
group B and brown eyes with blood group A
...
• These haploids fuse randomly at fertilisation and increase genetic
diversity
...
The chromatids of each pair become twisted around each other
...
Tensions are created and parts of the chromatid break off
...
Broken pieces rejoin with the homologous partner
...
Usually equivalent portions which are exchanged
...
New genetic combinations are increased
Title: DNA and Meiosis - AQA
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.