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Title: DNA and Meiosis - AQA
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.

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DNA  and  Meiosis  
 

DNA  and  Meiosis  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

•  Structure  of  DNA  
•  The  Triplet  Code  
•  DNA  and  Chromosomes  
•  Meiosis  and  Genetic  Variation  

 
 
 
 

DNA  and  Meiosis  
 

Structure  of  DNA  

 
Nucleotide  Structure  

•   Nucleotides  of  DNA  are  made  up  of  three  components:    
-­‐   A  sugar  called  deoxyribose    
-­‐   A  phosphate  group  
-­‐   An  organic  base  belonging  to  one  of  two  groups:  
a)  Single-­‐ring  bases:  cytosine  (C)  and  thymine  (T)    
b)  Double-­‐ring  bases:  adenine  (A)  and  guanine  (G)  
•   The  three  components  are  a  result  of  a  condensation  reaction  that  gives  a  
single  nucleotide
...
 
•   Joined  together  by  hydrogen  bonds  between  the  bases
...
 
•   Base  pairs  must  be  made  up  of  one  from  each  of  these  types
...
 
The  Double  Helix:  
•   Double  helix  is  a  twisted  ladder-­‐like  structure
...
 
•   10  base  pairs  complete  one  twist
...
 
Responsible  for  passing  on  genetic  information  from  cell  to  cell
...
 
Adapted  to  carry  out  its  functions  in  several  ways:  
-­‐    Very  stable  so  can  pass  on  genetic  material  for  generations
...
 

DNA  and  Meiosis  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

-­‐   Very  long  so  carries  an  immense  amount  of  genetic  information
...
 
•   The  function  of  a  DNA  molecule  depends  on  its  sequence  of  base  pairs
...
 
•   Polypeptides  form  proteins  and  so  genes  determine  the  proteins  of  an  
organism
...
 
 

The  Triplet  Code  
Only  20  amino  acids  regularly  occur  in  proteins
...
 
Only  4  different  bases  are  present  in  DNA
...
 
•   A  pair  of  bases  would  only  code  for  16  amino  acids
...
 
•   Sections  that  do  not  code  for  amino  acids  are  called  introns
...
 
•   The  remaining  amino  acids  have  between  two  and  six  triplet  codes  each
...
 
•   Always  read  in  one  particular  direction
...
 
•   The  codon  is  non-­‐overlapping
...
 
 
•  
•  
•  
•  

ATC    CGA    TAT    CCC    CGC    ATT    GGC    CAA    AAT    TGG    GCG    
 
TAG    GCT    ATA    GGG    GCG    TTA    CCG    GTT    TTA    ACC    CGC  
 

DNA  and  Meiosis  
 
 

DNA  and  Chromosomes  
 
•   In  prokaryotic  cells  (bacteria),  the  DNA  molecules  are  smaller,  form  a  circle  
and  aren’t  associated  with  protein  molecules
...
 
•   In  eukaryotic  cells,  the  DNA  molecules  are  larger  and  linear
...
 
 

Chromosome  Structure  
Only  visible  when  a  cell  is  dividing
...
   
Each  thread  is  called  a  chromatid
...
 
The  DNA  is  highly  coiled  and  folded
...
 
The  coil  is  looped  and  coiled  again  before  being  packed  into  the  
chromosome
...
 
•   There  should  normally  be  an  even  number  of  chromosomes  in  an  
organism  as  chromosomes  occur  in  homologous  pairs
...
 
•   Always  two  chromosomes  that  determine  the  same  genetic  characteristics  
but  determining  the  same  characteristics  is  not  the  same  as  being  
identical
...
 One  chromosome  may  have  the  alleles  for  
blue  eyes  and  type  A  blood  and  the  other  may  have  the  alleles  for  brown  
eyes  and  type  O  blood
...
 
•   When  these  haploid  cells  combine,  the  diploid  state  (with  paired  
homologous  chromosomes)  is  restored
...
 
Each  individual  inherits  one  allele  from  each  of  its  parents
...
 
When  different,  each  allele  codes  for  a  different  polypeptide
...
   
•   Leads  to  production  of  a  different  polypeptide  chain
...
 
•   This  protein  may  be  an  enzyme  which  now  has  a  different  tertiary  
structure  and  cannot  form  an  enzyme-­‐substrate  complex  meaning  it  is  no  
longer  functional
...
 Division  of  the  nucleus  happens  in  two  ways:  
•   Mitosis:  produces  two  daughter  nuclei  with  the  same  number  of  
chromosomes  as  the  parent  cell  and  as  each  other
...
 
 

Why  is  meiosis  necessary?  

 

•   In  sexual  reproduction  two  gametes  fuse  to  make  an  offspring
...
 
•   Therefore,  in  order  to  maintain  control  of  the  number  of  chromosomes  
passed  on  to  each  generation,  the  number  of  chromosomes  must  be  
halved
...
 
•   Every  diploid  cell  has  two  sets  of  chromosomes
...
 
•   This  is  known  as  the  haploid  number  of  chromosomes
...
 In  the  first  division  (meiosis  1)  the  homologous  chromosomes  pair  up  and  
their  chromatids  (copy  of  a  chromosome)  wrap  around  each  other  at  the  
centromere
...
 By  the  end  of  this  stage,  the  homologous  pairs  have  
separated,  with  one  chromosome  from  each  pair  going  into  one  of  each  of  
the  daughter  cells
...
 In  the  second  division  (meiosis  2)  the  chromatids  separate
...
 
Meiosis  also  brings  about  genetic  variation  by:  
•   Independent  segregation  of  homologous  chromosomes
...
 
 

DNA  and  Meiosis  
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 

Maternal  
chromosome  

Meiosis  1  

Meiosis  2  

 

 

 

 

 

Paternal  
chromosome  
Parent  cell  showing  
a  single  pair  of  
homologous  
chromosomes  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 

 

 
 

 
 

Homologous  
chromosomes  are  
separated  into  
different  cells  

 

 

 
 
 

Chromatids  are  separated  
by  a  further  division  into  
four  cells  each  with  a  single  
chromatid  

•   Gene:  a  section  of  DNA  that  codes  for  a  polypeptide
...
 
•   Allele:  one  of  the  different  forms  of  a  particular  gene
...
 
•   One  of  each  pair  passes  to  a  daughter  cell
...
 
•   This  is  called  independent  segregation
...
 
•   The  alleles  for  these  genes  may  differ
...
 
•   Stage  1:  one  pair  of  chromosomes  contains  the  alleles  for  eye  colour  
(brown  and  blue)  and  the  other  chromosome  carries  alleles  for  blood  type  
(type  A  and  type  B)
...
 
•   Stage  2:  At  the  end  of  meiosis  1,  the  homologous  chromosomes  have  
segregated  into  two  separate  cells
...
 The  gametes  
produced  depends  on  the  original  arrangement  of  the  chromosomes
...
 
•   The  second  arrangement  will  produce  gametes  with  blue  eyes  with  blood  
group  B  and  brown  eyes  with  blood  group  A
...
 
•   These  haploids  fuse  randomly  at  fertilisation  and  increase  genetic  
diversity
...
 The  chromatids  of  each  pair  become  twisted  around  each  other
...
 Tensions  are  created  and  parts  of  the  chromatid  break  off
...
 Broken  pieces  rejoin  with  the  homologous  partner
...
 Usually  equivalent  portions  which  are  exchanged
...
 New  genetic  combinations  are  increased
Title: DNA and Meiosis - AQA
Description: Notes for DNA and Meiosis as part of AQA A-Level Biology course (Unit 2). Written in 2015.