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Title: Cells
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students
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Cells
Today scientists agree that the cell is the fundamental unit of all life forms
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This means that an individual cell
can perform all the functions of life
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One of the functions carried out by all living organisms is reproduction
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They cannot be created from non-‐living material
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He showed that bacteria could not
grow in a sealed, sterilised container of chicken soup
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Extensive examinations of many organisms have supported cell theory, although
one or two examples that do not fit the theory perfectly
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Bone cells are also somehow anomalous because they have a matrix of
extracellular material around them, which seems to be greater than the cells
themselves
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Unicellular organisms
By definition a living organism comprising of just one cell has to perform all the
necessary functions for survival
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A unicellular organism needs to metabolise organic materials in order to make
the chemicals needed to sustain life
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Some unicellular
organisms photosynthesise and they have a light spot that enables them to move
to a brighter environment to maximise photosynthesis
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It must also obtain food, whether
produced by itself by photosynthesis or ingested from outside as a source of
organic or inorganic material (nutrition)
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This could be either asexual or sexual
reproduction
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Light microscopes, which can magnify up to one
thousand times reveals some internal structures such as the nucleus but greater
detail requires the use of more powerful microscopes, such as the electron
microscope, which magnifies up to 500000 times
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Other techniques such as x-‐ray crystallography can be used
to find detailed structures of cells
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Cells do not and cannot
grow to become very large, and this is important in the way that living organisms
are built and function
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The surface area of a cell determines the rate of
exchange of materials with the outside environment
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As a cell grows
larger, in relative terms it has less surface area to obtain the materials it needs
and to dispose of waste
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Some cells in multicellular organisms have specialised structures, such as spores
and microvilli, which inrease the surface area so that the rate of diffusion and
absorption increases
...
But there is a limit
to the size of a single cell, beyond this a cell must divide and the organism must
be multicellular
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An organism
can grow in size and its cell can differentiate, which means that they can take on
specific functions so that the organism can grow in complexity as with their size
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Differentiation is said to allow for emergent properties in a multicellular
organism
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Nerve cells may interact with muscle cells to stimulate movement
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In a particular organism, all the nerve cells have the same genes as all the muscle
cells
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For example a pancreatic cell will express genes for the production of digestive
enzymes or insulin, but this will not occur in a skin cell
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This information is all within the genes, inherited form the
maternal and paternal DNA as fine threads called chromosomes
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Gradually after the stage, the cells become
specialised, designed to become particular cells such as muscle or liver
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g
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Once differentiation has happened, it cannot be reversed
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They are known as embryonic stem cells
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However, some adult tissues contain a different form of
stem cell -‐ one that can only differentiate cells associated with that tissue
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Stem cells are different from body cells in the following ways:
(1) They are unspecialised
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(3) They can differentiate into several types of cells
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Scientists have begun to investigate and culture bacteria in the 1980s and it soon
became apparent that there was enormous potential in using the cells
therapeutically
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Early work was concentrated on embryonic stem cells, but they could only be
obtained from discarded embryos from IVF clinic
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Many feel that the destruction of an embryo
for to obtain stem cells is morally unacceptable
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A less controversial area of research is the area of growing and using adult stem
cells; in this case cells are obtained from bone marrow or other tissue from a
donor who has given consent
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Therapeutic use of stem cells
One important source of stem cells, which has been successfully used in medical
treatments, is the blood in umbilical chord of a newborn baby
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Cells from the chord blood are collected and their
tissue type is determined
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They become established in the person's bone marrow, and start
producing blood cells ass normal
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Scientists have been looking
for ways to combine the cells for more than one baby or to increase the number
of cells in a laboratory
...
In 2010, scientists managed to alter a signaling pathway in the stem cells so the
could increase in number without loosing stem cell properties
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Stem cell therapy has also been successfully used in the treatment of type one
diabetes
...
g
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Magnification and scale
Cells are extremely small and knowing the sizes of objects viewed on the
microscope can be very useful
...
g
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Magnification can be defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the
object:
Magnification = size of image/size of object
With a compound microscope, the magnification is the product of both lenses so
if a microscope has a x10 eye piece and a x10 objective, then the total
magnification is x100
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If the magnification is x165
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5 micrometers = 01515 mm
Magnification = measured length of the cell/actual length of the cell
Prokaryotic Cells
Cells are divided into two types according to their structure:
(1) Prokaryotic cells
(2) Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells have a much simpler structure and are thought to be the first
cells to have evolved, e
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bacteria are all prokaryotic cells
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They also have no organelles (internal
structures)
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In prokaryotic cells, a cell wall surrounds the cell
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The plasma membrane controls the movement of materials into and out of the
cell, e
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some substances are pumped in and out using active transport
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It also contains the genetic material
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The DNA is not
contained in a nuclear envelope and also there are no proteins associated with
the DNA
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Plasmids replicate independently and maybe passed from one cell to another
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They synthesise proteins
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Some bacteria have pili, which are found on the cell wall and can connect to
other bacterial cells, drawing them together so that genetic material can be
exchanged between them
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This means that their division is also simple
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This is called binary fission
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Animals,
plants and fungi all are eukaryotic ells
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Eukaryotic cells contain structures called organelles, each of which have their
own specific function
...
Different types of cells have different organelles in different proportions
depending on the role of the cell
...
Chromosomes are composed of DNA combined with proteins to form a material
known as chromatin
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Small gaps in the envelope called nuclear pores are visible,
and it is through the nuclear pores that materials pass between the nucleus and
the rest of the cell
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This is the site of production of ribosomes
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Ribosomes attach to this network to form rough
endoplasmic reticulum, the site for protein synthesis
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They can
be transported in vesicles to other parts of the cell such as Golgi apparatus
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The membranes of smooth endoplasmic reticulum have
many enzymes on their surfaces
...
g
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
also produces phospholipids for the construction of membranes and lipids for
use in the cell
...
It processes
proteins made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, collecting, packing and
modifying them and then releasing them in vesicles for transport in various
types of the cell
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Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are elongated structures
surrounded by a double membrane that are found throughout the cytoplasm
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The inner membrane is folded to form cristae, which
greatly increases surface area for the production of ATP in the cell
...
g
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Lysosomes are spherical organelles with little internal structure, which are made
by Golgi apparatus
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They are important in cell death, in breaking down old
organelles and so on
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Ribosomes are the sight of protein synthesis in the cell
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They are made of
RNA and protein but they do not have a similar membrane around them
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All plant cells have an outer cellulose
wall and most have a large cell centre vacuole
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The chloroplasts are found in cells exposed to light because they
are the sight for photosynthesis
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Ribosomes, chloroplasts and mitochondria have
their own DNA and are able to reproduce independently of the cell
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The membrane that surrounds
it is under pressure from within and exerts a force on the cytoplasm, which in
turn exerts a force on the cell wall making the cell turgid and firm
...
The cell walls and turgidity of plant cells gives strength and support to tissues
like leaves, holding them in the optimum positions to catch the energy from
sunlight or photosynthesis
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The role of Extracellular components
The extracellular matrix of animals (ECM) forms a supporting network for the
cell membrane and allows the adjacent cells to attach to one another and
communicate
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Cell walls form the extracellular component of all plant cells
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Cell walls retain the shape of
each cell, resist osmotic pressure and allow cells to communicate
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Plant cells fit
closely together to form tissues and their walls help bind together
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Stem cells may be
encouraged to become new cell types as a result of interactions with the ECM
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The correct model form
membrane structure was proposed in 1972 and is known as the fluid mosaic
model
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The Structure of Membranes
Membranes of a cell are between 7 and 10 nanometres thick, and are composed
of two layers of phospholipid, which form a bilayer
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In the bilayer, the
hydrophobic (water hating) parts all point towards each other and the
hydrophilic (water loving) areas point outward
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The hydrophilic heads of the
molecules always appear on the outside of the membrane where water is
present, while the hydrophobic tales orientate inside the double layer away from
water
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There is much evidence to
support the plasma membrane as fluid mosaic
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Research shows that these molecules
move not only within their own layer but also with two layers of the membrane
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Cholesterol is often present in animal cells and is most commonly
found in the plasma membrane
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There are also different types of proteins in the bilayer
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Many of the proteins on the outer surface are glycoproteins, that is they
have a carbohydrate group attached to them
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Others are important in cell to cell communication
and adhesion
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Finally there are proteins that span the bilayer acting as channels for ions and
molecules to pass by by passive transport or forming pumps that use active
transport move molecules into or out of the cell
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Diffusion is one example of passive transport
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g
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Osmosis -‐ another example of passive transport but the term is only used in the
context of water molecules -‐ osmosis is the movement of water molecules across
a partially permeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration
where there is a high concentration of water molecules, to region of higher
solute concentration where the concentration of water molecules is lower
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In the cases where molecules are large or where charged particles such as
chloride ions must pass, simple diffusion is impossible
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Here an integral
protein in the membrane forms a channel so that the substance particles can
pass through them into or out of the cell
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Furthermore they are specific and allow only a particular
substance to pass through
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In
both diffusion and faciliated diffusion, no energy is used by the cell and as usual
the cell relies on the kinetic energy of the particles moving down the
concentration gradient
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Active Transport
Active transport -‐ the movement of substances against the concentration
gradient, which always involves the expenditure of energy in the form of ATP
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Muscle cells actively take calcium ions to enable them to
contract
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Specific proteins in the plasma membrane act as tranporters called carriers to
move substances through
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Another very good example of active is the sodium potassium pump
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Cells are able to exchange sodium ions for potassium
ions against concentration gradients using energy provided by ATP
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Exocytosis and Endocytosis
Cells often have to transport large chemical molecules or materials in bulk across
a plasma membrane
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Instead cells can release or take in such materials in vesicles by uptake, which is
called endocytosis, and release, which is called exocytosis
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There are two types of endocytosis
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If the substances are in
solution, such as the end products of digestion, then the process is called
pinocytosis
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The material becomes enclosed within a vesicle, which pinches off from
the plasma membrane and is drawn into the cell
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Materials for export such as digestive enzymes are made in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and are then transported into the Golgi apparatus to be
processed
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The
vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and in doing so release their contents to
the outside of the cell
Title: Cells
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students