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Title: Cells
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students

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Cells  

 
Today  scientists  agree  that  the  cell  is  the  fundamental  unit  of  all  life  forms
...
 This  means  that  an  individual  cell  
can  perform  all  the  functions  of  life
...
   
 
One  of  the  functions  carried  out  by  all  living  organisms  is  reproduction
...
 They  cannot  be  created  from  non-­‐living  material
...
 He  showed  that  bacteria  could  not  
grow  in  a  sealed,  sterilised  container  of  chicken  soup
...
 
Extensive  examinations  of  many  organisms  have  supported  cell  theory,  although  
one  or  two  examples  that  do  not  fit  the  theory  perfectly
...
 Bone  cells  are  also  somehow  anomalous  because  they  have  a  matrix  of  
extracellular  material  around  them,  which  seems  to  be  greater  than  the  cells  
themselves
...
 
 

Unicellular  organisms  
 

By  definition  a  living  organism  comprising  of  just  one  cell  has  to  perform  all  the  
necessary  functions  for  survival
...
 
 
A  unicellular  organism  needs  to  metabolise  organic  materials  in  order  to  make  
the  chemicals  needed  to  sustain  life
...
 Some  unicellular  
organisms  photosynthesise  and  they  have  a  light  spot  that  enables  them  to  move  
to  a  brighter  environment  to  maximise  photosynthesis
...
 It  must  also  obtain  food,  whether  
produced  by  itself  by  photosynthesis  or  ingested  from  outside  as  a  source  of  
organic  or  inorganic  material  (nutrition)
...
 This  could  be  either  asexual  or  sexual  
reproduction
...
 Light  microscopes,  which  can  magnify  up  to  one  
thousand  times  reveals  some  internal  structures  such  as  the  nucleus  but  greater  
detail  requires  the  use  of  more  powerful  microscopes,  such  as  the  electron  
microscope,  which  magnifies  up  to  500000  times
...
 Other  techniques  such  as  x-­‐ray  crystallography  can  be  used  
to  find  detailed  structures  of  cells
...
 Cells  do  not  and  cannot  
grow  to  become  very  large,  and  this  is  important  in  the  way  that  living  organisms  
are  built  and  function
...
 The  surface  area  of  a  cell  determines  the  rate  of  
exchange  of  materials  with  the  outside  environment
...
 As  a  cell  grows  
larger,  in  relative  terms  it  has  less  surface  area  to  obtain  the  materials  it  needs  
and  to  dispose  of  waste
...
 
Some  cells  in  multicellular  organisms  have  specialised  structures,  such  as  spores  
and  microvilli,  which  inrease  the  surface  area  so  that  the  rate  of  diffusion  and  
absorption  increases
...
 But  there  is  a  limit  
to  the  size  of  a  single  cell,  beyond  this  a  cell  must  divide  and  the  organism  must  
be  multicellular
...
 An  organism  
can  grow  in  size  and  its  cell  can  differentiate,  which  means  that  they  can  take  on  
specific  functions  so  that  the  organism  can  grow  in  complexity  as  with  their  size
...
   
 
Differentiation  is  said  to  allow  for  emergent  properties  in  a  multicellular  
organism
...
 Nerve  cells  may  interact  with  muscle  cells  to  stimulate  movement
...
 
In  a  particular  organism,  all  the  nerve  cells  have  the  same  genes  as  all  the  muscle  
cells
...
 
 
For  example  a  pancreatic  cell  will  express  genes  for  the  production  of  digestive  
enzymes  or  insulin,  but  this  will  not  occur  in  a  skin  cell
...
 This  information  is  all  within  the  genes,  inherited  form  the  
maternal  and  paternal  DNA  as  fine  threads  called  chromosomes
...
 Gradually  after  the  stage,  the  cells  become  
specialised,  designed  to  become  particular  cells  such  as  muscle  or  liver
...
g
...
 
 
Once  differentiation  has  happened,  it  cannot  be  reversed
...
 They  are  known  as  embryonic  stem  cells
...
 However,  some  adult  tissues  contain  a  different  form  of  
stem  cell  -­‐  one  that  can  only  differentiate  cells  associated  with  that  tissue
...
 
 
Stem  cells  are  different  from  body  cells  in  the  following  ways:  
 
(1)  They  are  unspecialised
...
 
(3)  They  can  differentiate  into  several  types  of  cells
...
 
 
Scientists  have  begun  to  investigate  and  culture  bacteria  in  the  1980s  and  it  soon  
became  apparent  that  there  was  enormous  potential  in  using  the  cells  
therapeutically
...
   
 
Early  work  was  concentrated  on  embryonic  stem  cells,  but  they  could  only  be  
obtained  from  discarded  embryos  from  IVF  clinic
...
 Many  feel  that  the  destruction  of  an  embryo  
for  to  obtain  stem  cells  is  morally  unacceptable
...
   
 
A  less  controversial  area  of  research  is  the  area  of  growing  and  using  adult  stem  
cells;  in  this  case  cells  are  obtained  from  bone  marrow  or  other  tissue  from  a  
donor  who  has  given  consent
...
 

Therapeutic  use  of  stem  cells  
 
One  important  source  of  stem  cells,  which  has  been  successfully  used  in  medical  
treatments,  is  the  blood  in  umbilical  chord  of  a  newborn  baby
...
 Cells  from  the  chord  blood  are  collected  and  their  
tissue  type  is  determined
...
 They  become  established  in  the  person's  bone  marrow,  and  start  
producing  blood  cells  ass  normal
...
 Scientists  have  been  looking  
for  ways  to  combine  the  cells  for  more  than  one  baby  or  to  increase  the  number  
of  cells  in  a  laboratory
...
 
 
In  2010,  scientists  managed  to  alter  a  signaling  pathway  in  the  stem  cells  so  the  
could  increase  in  number  without  loosing  stem  cell  properties
...
 
 
Stem  cell  therapy  has  also  been  successfully  used  in  the  treatment  of  type  one  
diabetes
...
g
...
 
 
 
 

Magnification  and  scale  

 
Cells  are  extremely  small  and  knowing  the  sizes  of  objects  viewed  on  the  
microscope  can  be  very  useful
...
g
...
 
 
Magnification  can  be  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  size  of  the  image  to  the  size  of  the  
object:  
 
Magnification  =  size  of  image/size  of  object  
 
With  a  compound  microscope,  the  magnification  is  the  product  of  both  lenses  so  
if  a  microscope  has  a  x10  eye  piece  and  a  x10  objective,  then  the  total  
magnification  is  x100
...
 If  the  magnification  is  x165
...
5  micrometers  =  01515  mm  

 
Magnification  =  measured  length  of  the  cell/actual  length  of  the  cell  
 
 

Prokaryotic  Cells  

 
Cells  are  divided  into  two  types  according  to  their  structure:  
 
(1)  Prokaryotic  cells  
 
(2)  Eukaryotic  cells  
 
Prokaryotic  cells  have  a  much  simpler  structure  and  are  thought  to  be  the  first  
cells  to  have  evolved,  e
...
 bacteria  are  all  prokaryotic  cells
...
 They  also  have  no  organelles  (internal  
structures)
...
 
 
In  prokaryotic  cells,  a  cell  wall  surrounds  the  cell
...
 
 
The  plasma  membrane  controls  the  movement  of  materials  into  and  out  of  the  
cell,  e
...
 some  substances  are  pumped  in  and  out  using  active  transport
...
 It  also  contains  the  genetic  material
...
 The  DNA  is  not  
contained  in  a  nuclear  envelope  and  also  there  are  no  proteins  associated  with  
the  DNA
...
 
Plasmids  replicate  independently  and  maybe  passed  from  one  cell  to  another
...
 They  synthesise  proteins
...
 
 
Some  bacteria  have  pili,  which  are  found  on  the  cell  wall  and  can  connect  to  
other  bacterial  cells,  drawing  them  together  so  that  genetic  material  can  be  
exchanged  between  them
...
 This  means  that  their  division  is  also  simple
...
 This  is  called  binary  fission
...
 Animals,  
plants  and  fungi  all  are  eukaryotic  ells
...
 
 
Eukaryotic  cells  contain  structures  called  organelles,  each  of  which  have  their  
own  specific  function
...
 
 
Different  types  of  cells  have  different  organelles  in  different  proportions  
depending  on  the  role  of  the  cell
...
 
Chromosomes  are  composed  of  DNA  combined  with  proteins  to  form  a  material  
known  as  chromatin
...
 Small  gaps  in  the  envelope  called  nuclear  pores  are  visible,  
and  it  is  through  the  nuclear  pores  that  materials  pass  between  the  nucleus  and  
the  rest  of  the  cell
...
 This  is  the  site  of  production  of  ribosomes
...
 Ribosomes  attach  to  this  network  to  form  rough  
endoplasmic  reticulum,  the  site  for  protein  synthesis
...
 They  can  
be  transported  in  vesicles  to  other  parts  of  the  cell  such  as  Golgi  apparatus
...
 The  membranes  of  smooth  endoplasmic  reticulum  have  
many  enzymes  on  their  surfaces
...
g
...
 Smooth  endoplasmic  reticulum  
also  produces  phospholipids  for  the  construction  of  membranes  and  lipids  for  
use  in  the  cell
...
 It  processes  
proteins  made  in  the  rough  endoplasmic  reticulum,  collecting,  packing  and  
modifying  them  and  then  releasing  them  in  vesicles  for  transport  in  various  
types  of  the  cell
...
 
 
Eukaryotic  cells  also  contain  mitochondria,  which  are  elongated  structures  
surrounded  by  a  double  membrane  that  are  found  throughout  the  cytoplasm
...
 The  inner  membrane  is  folded  to  form  cristae,  which  
greatly  increases  surface  area  for  the  production  of  ATP  in  the  cell
...
g
...
   

 
Lysosomes  are  spherical  organelles  with  little  internal  structure,  which  are  made  
by  Golgi  apparatus
...
 They  are  important  in  cell  death,  in  breaking  down  old  
organelles  and  so  on
...
 
 
Ribosomes  are  the  sight  of  protein  synthesis  in  the  cell
...
 They  are  made  of  
RNA  and  protein  but  they  do  not  have  a  similar  membrane  around  them
...
 All  plant  cells  have  an  outer  cellulose  
wall  and  most  have  a  large  cell  centre  vacuole
...
 The  chloroplasts  are  found  in  cells  exposed  to  light  because  they  
are  the  sight  for  photosynthesis
...
 Ribosomes,  chloroplasts  and  mitochondria  have  
their  own  DNA  and  are  able  to  reproduce  independently  of  the  cell
...
 The  membrane  that  surrounds  
it  is  under  pressure  from  within  and  exerts  a  force  on  the  cytoplasm,  which  in  
turn  exerts  a  force  on  the  cell  wall  making  the  cell  turgid  and  firm
...
 
The  cell  walls  and  turgidity  of  plant  cells  gives  strength  and  support  to  tissues  
like  leaves,  holding  them  in  the  optimum  positions  to  catch  the  energy  from  
sunlight  or  photosynthesis
...
 
 
 

The  role  of  Extracellular  components  

 
The  extracellular  matrix  of  animals  (ECM)  forms  a  supporting  network  for  the  
cell  membrane  and  allows  the  adjacent  cells  to  attach  to  one  another  and  
communicate
...
   
 
Cell  walls  form  the  extracellular  component  of  all  plant  cells
...
 Cell  walls  retain  the  shape  of  
each  cell,  resist  osmotic  pressure  and  allow  cells  to  communicate
...
 Plant  cells  fit  
closely  together  to  form  tissues  and  their  walls  help  bind  together
...
 Stem  cells  may  be  
encouraged  to  become  new  cell  types  as  a  result  of  interactions  with  the  ECM
...
 The  correct  model  form  
membrane  structure  was  proposed  in  1972  and  is  known  as  the  fluid  mosaic  
model
...
 
 
 

The  Structure  of  Membranes  

 
Membranes  of  a  cell  are  between  7  and  10  nanometres  thick,  and  are  composed  
of  two  layers  of  phospholipid,  which  form  a  bilayer
...
 In  the  bilayer,  the  
hydrophobic  (water  hating)  parts  all  point  towards  each  other  and  the  
hydrophilic  (water  loving)  areas  point  outward
...
 The  hydrophilic  heads  of  the  
molecules  always  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  membrane  where  water  is  
present,  while  the  hydrophobic  tales  orientate  inside  the  double  layer  away  from  
water
...
 There  is  much  evidence  to  
support  the  plasma  membrane  as  fluid  mosaic
...
 Research  shows  that  these  molecules  
move  not  only  within  their  own  layer  but  also  with  two  layers  of  the  membrane
...
 Cholesterol  is  often  present  in  animal  cells  and  is  most  commonly  
found  in  the  plasma  membrane
...
 
 
There  are  also  different  types  of  proteins  in  the  bilayer
...
 Many  of  the  proteins  on  the  outer  surface  are  glycoproteins,  that  is  they  
have  a  carbohydrate  group  attached  to  them
...
 Others  are  important  in  cell  to  cell  communication  
and  adhesion
...
 
 
Finally  there  are  proteins  that  span  the  bilayer  acting  as  channels  for  ions  and  
molecules  to  pass  by  by  passive  transport  or  forming  pumps  that  use  active  
transport  move  molecules  into  or  out  of  the  cell  
...
 Diffusion  is  one  example  of  passive  transport
...
g
...
 
 
Osmosis  -­‐  another  example  of  passive  transport  but  the  term  is  only  used  in  the  
context  of  water  molecules  -­‐  osmosis  is  the  movement  of  water  molecules  across  
a  partially  permeable  membrane  from  a  region  of  lower  solute  concentration  
where  there  is  a  high  concentration  of  water  molecules,  to  region  of  higher  
solute  concentration  where  the  concentration  of  water  molecules  is  lower
...
 
 
In  the  cases  where  molecules  are  large  or  where  charged  particles  such  as  
chloride  ions  must  pass,  simple  diffusion  is  impossible
...
 Here  an  integral  
protein  in  the  membrane  forms  a  channel  so  that  the  substance  particles  can  
pass  through  them  into  or  out  of  the  cell
...
 Furthermore  they  are  specific  and  allow  only  a  particular  
substance  to  pass  through
...
 In  
both  diffusion  and  faciliated  diffusion,  no  energy  is  used  by  the  cell  and  as  usual  
the  cell  relies  on  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  particles  moving  down  the  
concentration  gradient
...
 
 

 
Active  Transport  

 
Active  transport  -­‐  the  movement  of  substances  against  the  concentration  
gradient,  which  always  involves  the  expenditure  of  energy  in  the  form  of  ATP
...
 Muscle  cells  actively  take  calcium  ions  to  enable  them  to  
contract
...
 
 
Specific  proteins  in  the  plasma  membrane  act  as  tranporters  called  carriers  to  
move  substances  through
...
 
 
Another  very  good  example  of  active  is  the  sodium  potassium  pump
...
 Cells  are  able  to  exchange  sodium  ions  for  potassium  
ions  against  concentration  gradients  using  energy  provided  by  ATP
...
 
 
 

Exocytosis  and  Endocytosis  
 

Cells  often  have  to  transport  large  chemical  molecules  or  materials  in  bulk  across  
a  plasma  membrane
...
 
Instead  cells  can  release  or  take  in  such  materials  in  vesicles  by  uptake,  which  is  
called  endocytosis,  and  release,  which  is  called  exocytosis
...
 
 
There  are  two  types  of  endocytosis
...
 If  the  substances  are  in  
solution,  such  as  the  end  products  of  digestion,  then  the  process  is  called  
pinocytosis
...
 The  material  becomes  enclosed  within  a  vesicle,  which  pinches  off  from  
the  plasma  membrane  and  is  drawn  into  the  cell
...
 
 
Materials  for  export  such  as  digestive  enzymes  are  made  in  the  rough  
endoplasmic  reticulum  and  are  then  transported  into  the  Golgi  apparatus  to  be  
processed
...
 The  
vesicles  fuse  with  the  plasma  membrane  and  in  doing  so  release  their  contents  to  
the  outside  of  the  cell
Title: Cells
Description: Suitable for Higher students, IB students and A-level students