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Title: Human Health and Physiology
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.
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Human health and Physiology
Physiology is the study of organs and organs systems of the body and how they
interact to keep us alive
...
Digestion
The food we take in consists of large, complex molecules, which are not suitable
to be used as they are
...
Digestion is the biochemical breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into
small soluble molecules
...
Molecules produce by digestion pass
through the wall of the small intestine by diffusion, facilitated diffusion or active
transport
...
Three main types of food molecules that must be digested are carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids
...
In the human digestion system, different enzymes are released in different
sections of the digestion system and each one is specific for one food type
...
All the enzymes help to catalyses hydrolysis reactions and work most efficiently
at 37°C
...
Associated with it are a number of glands that secrete enzymes
and other digestive juices
...
Mouth, Esophagus and Stomach
In the mouth, food is broken into small pieces by jaws and teeth and mixed with
saliva containing salivary amylase, which begins the digestion of any starch the
food contains
...
The stomach is a muscular sack that
holds the food for up to four hours, while digestion proceeds inside it
...
The digestion of proteins begins here, catalysed by the enzyme pepsin, which is
secreted in gastric juice used by millions of gastric glands in the stomach wall
...
Hydrochloric acid
activates the pepsin and produces a pH of 1
...
This pH is the
optimum for protein digestion and also kills many of the bacteria present in the
food we eat
...
Food is transformed in the stomach to a semi-‐liquid form and is then ready to
move on to the next stage of digetsion on to the small intestine
...
Digestion is
completed in the first section of the small intestine
...
Bile is added from
the liver and the gall bladder, and the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice
containing trypsin (protease), lipase, amylase and carbonate ions
...
The inner surface of the small intestine is greatly folded to form
thousands of tiny villi
...
Villi greatly increase the surface area of
the small intestine and improve its efficiency as an absorptive surface
...
Amino acids and glucose then enter
the capillaries and are carried away in the bloodstream
...
After digested has been absorbed it is assimilated into the body and enter cells to
become part of the body tissues or as reserves
...
It forms part of the reserve
of amino acids used to build proteins, and fatty acids and glycerol enters the
bloodstream from lymph vessels near the heart to be used as an energy source
or to build larger molecules
...
Any remaining undigested material
passes into the large intestine, which also contains mucus, dead cells from the
intestine lining and large numbers of naturally occurring bacteria
...
The main role of the large intestine is reabsorbing water and mineral ions such
as sodium chloride
...
What remains of the original food is now referred to as faeces and it is
egested from the body via the anus
...
The heart, the blood and blood vessels make up the most efficient
transport system that reaches all cells bringing the substances they need and
taking away their waste
...
In the human circulatory system, blood is kept on the move by the powerful
action of the strong heart muscle
...
5 x 109 times in a lifetime (number of times the heart
beats), sending a total of more than 1
...
A human heart is about the size of a clenched fist, it is a double pump with two
separate sides
...
The left hand side
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps blood to the cells all over
the body where the oxygen is unloaded
...
The heart has four chambers, two smaller atria at the top, and two larger
ventricles below
...
Atria have thin walls as the blood received has relatively low
pressure
...
Both ventricles hold the same volume of blood but the left
ventricle wall is thicker than the right as it must generate enough pressure to
pump blood all around the body
...
Atria are separated form ventricles by atrioventicular valves, which prevents the
blood from flowing backwards into the atria
...
The heart muscles work continuously, beating about seventy five times a minute
when a person is resting and so it has a large demand for oxygen
...
The Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is a sequence of events that takes place during one heartbeat
...
Valves in
the heart and arteries stop blood from flowing backwards
...
The cardiac muscle is unique because it contracts and
relaxes without stimulus from the nervous system
...
Natural myogenic contractions are initiated at an inbuilt pacemaker, which
keeps the cardiac muscle working in a coordinated controlled sequence
...
The rate set by the SAN is also
influenced by stimulation of the nervous system and by hormones
...
A second structure, the atrioventicular node (AVN) at the base of the
atrium is also stimulated
...
Impulses radiate
up through the ventricles, which contract simultaneously, about 0
...
The natural rhythm of the pacemaker is modulated by the nervous system so
that the heart rate is adjusted to our activity levels
...
Changes to our heart rate are not up to our conscious control but result from the
impulses sent from a control centre in the brain called the medulla
...
Impulses sent along the parasympathetic nerve
cause the heart rate to slow down
...
Emotions such as stress, as well as increases in activity level can cause increases
in heart rate
...
Summary of the cardiac cycle:
• The muscles of the atrium wall contract pushing blood through the
atrioventicular valves into the ventricles
...
This is called atrial systole
...
When the ventricles are full,
the ventricular muscles contract generating the pressure that drives
blood past the semilunar valves to the aorta (left ventricle) or to the
pulmonary artery (right ventricle)
...
A pulse is
produced that can be felt in the arteries and other parts of the body
...
The
semilunar valves are closed by the backpressure of blood in the arteries
...
• Blood flows into the atria from the veins, opens the atrioventicular valves
and begins to fill the ventricles
...
Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium from
the pulmonary artery
...
Blood and blood vessels
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
...
Arteries have thick outer walls of collagen and elastic fibres, which withstand
high blood pressure and prevent vessels becoming overstretched or bursting
...
Inside an artery, the lumen is narrow to keep blood pressure high
...
Capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest vessels, the lumen of the capillaries are only about
ten micrometres in diameter and some are so small that red blood cells have to
fold up in order to pass along the capillaries
...
Blood flow here is very slow, at les than one
millimetre per second but capillary walls are only one millimetre thick so the
distance of diffusion of materials in and out of them is as small as possible
...
Veins
Veins carry blood back to the heart through the tissues
...
Blood inside a vein does not pulse along the lumen and the lumen is large to hold
slow moving flow
...
Many veins contain valves to prevent blood flowing backwards
...
Composition of Blood
Blood plasma is a pale yellow liquid that makes up fifty per cent of our blood
volume
...
Leucocytes -‐ defend the body against pathogens
...
Functions of Blood
Blood has two important roles, (1) it is a vital part of the bodies transport system
carrying dissolved materials to all cells and (2) it helps to fight infectious disease
...
Most pathogens are bacteria and viruses but protozoa, parasitic worms
and fungi can also be pathogens
...
All viruses have
the potential to be pathogenic
...
Antibiotics
Most bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics
...
Next the discovery of penicillin in 1928, many antibiotics have been isolated and
about fifty are now manufactured for medical use
...
Some antibiotics block the
protein synthesis mechanism in bacteria while not affecting the process in
human cells
...
Viruses are not living and have no
metabolic pathways of their own, since they use their human host's metabolism
to build new viruses, antibiotics have no affects against viral infections
...
This is due to our effective immune system, which prevents pathogens from
entering the body and also deal with any that enter
...
Unbroken skin is a tough
barrier to any potential invaders
...
Openings in the skin, such as the eyes and nose can provide entry routes for the
pathogens, but these are protected by various secretion
...
If
pathogens are swallowed in food or bacteria, the acidic environment of the
stomach helps to kill them
...
These specialised white
blood cells circulate in the blood system, and because they are easily able to
change their shape, can also squeeze in and out of the capillaries
...
Antibodies and Antigens
Antigens (antibody generating substances) are proteins found embedded in the
plasma membranes or cell walls of bacteria, or in the protein code of a virus
...
Antibodies are protein molecules that are produced in response to any antigen
that enters the body
...
For example, the antibodies produced in response to
infection by influence of a virus are quite different from those produced in
response to a tuberculosis bacteria
...
Each antibody molecule has a basic y-‐shape, but at the tops of the y, specific
binding sites give every antibody its unique property
...
Once an antibody has bound to an antigen, it can destroy it in one of a
number of ways
...
Others cause cell walls to rupture, deactivate toxins or act as
recognition signals for phagocytes, giving a clear indication that action is needed
...
HIV affects only the helper T cells, a type of lymphocyte that is important
in maintaining communication between cells of the immune system
...
Helper T cells
instruct other lymphocytes to clone and generate antibodies and without them,
an infected person can no longer fight off pathogens
...
Cause, Transmission and Consequences of AIDS
AIDS is the end stage of a HIV infection; it is caused by severe failure of the
immune system, as the HIV virus selectively infects helper T cells
...
Symptoms of AIDS develop as the
number of active helper T cells decreases
...
HIV is transmitted in
blood, vaginal secretions, semen, and breast milk and sometimes across the
placenta
...
AIDS used to be though of as a disease that affected only drug abusers but now
may spread because of an irresponsible lifestyle
...
Even if all the viruses of the body
could be removed, the T cells would continue to make new viruses
...
Gas Exchange
All living cells need energy for their activities
...
Respiration is a chemical reaction that occurs in the mitochondria
and the cytoplasm, and releases energy as ATP
...
Oxygen is taken in from the air and carbon dioxide is
returned in a passive process known as gas exchange
...
Gases
are also exchanged in the tissues, where oxygen diffuses into respiring cells and
is exchanged for carbon dioxide
...
Air inside the
alveoli contains a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood
...
Blood contains a higher level of carbon dioxide than inhaled air,
so carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli
...
As oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli, the level of oxygen in the lungs gradually
falls, this process is known as ventilation
...
The inside of the rib cage is lined with membranes to
lubricate the lungs, making them slippery, and reducing friction during
breathing
...
Bronchi divide into smaller and
smaller tubes called bronchioles, which end in tiny air sacs known as alveoli
(singular -‐ alveolus)
...
Mechanism for Ventilation
Lungs have no muscles, and cannot move by themselves
...
There are two mechanisms by which breathing takes place
...
These movements lower the
volume of the chest cavity and lower the pressure on the lungs to below that of
the air outside
...
Gentile exhalation occurs as the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm relax,
reducing the volume of the chest cavity
...
Long or forced exhalation involves the internal intercostal muscles, which
contract to lower the ribs
...
Pressure inside the chest cavity increases and air
is forced out of the lungs
...
Formed in clusters at the end of the
smallest bronchioles, more than three hundred million alveoli in each lung
together provide a surface area of about seventy-‐five metres squared
...
The capillaries that rap around them also have thin walls of epithelial cells
...
Oxygen diffuses through the alveolus and capillary
into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction
...
Feature of Alveoli
Importance
Many small spherical alveoli
Provide a large area for gas exchange
Thin walls of flattened single cells
Short diffusion distance (diffusion
path)
Rich blood supply from capillaries
Maintains concentration gradient and
carries absorbed gases away rapidly
Nerves, Homeostasis and Hormones
The human nervous system consists neurons or nerve cells, which transmit
information in the form of nerve impulses
...
The CNS receives
information from sensory receptors all over the body
...
The peripheral nerves are a network of neurons that carry information to and
from the CNS
...
Neurons are found in the nervous system, sensory and motor neurons transmit
information to and from the CNS, while relay neurons within the CNS form
connections within between them
...
One long axon
then carries impulses away
...
The axon is covered by the myelin sheath formed by
Schwann cells, which rap themselves around it
...
Along the length of the axon, junctions where two Schwann cells
meet can be seen
...
Transmission of Impulses
Neurons transmit information in the form of impulses, which are short-‐lived
changes in electrical potential across the membrane of a neuron
...
An impulse occurs as these ions
move in and out through the plasma membrane
...
The resting potential is the potential difference across the plasma
membrane when it is not being stimulated
...
The inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the
outside
...
For a millisecond, the membrane is said to be depolarised
...
An impulse that travels in this way is known
as the action potential
...
The neuron is now said to be
depolarised
...
At this point the
sodium channels close
...
To re-‐establish the resting
potential, a process known as repolarisation occurs
...
At this point, both sodium and potassium ions begin
to close
...
An action potential in one part of an axon causes the depolarisation of maybe a
distant section of the axon
...
The action potential travels along the neuron
like a Mexican wave
...
The recovery phase is
known as the refractory period
...
The action potential must be transmitted across this gap for the impulse to pass
on its way
...
Neurotransmitters are held in vesicles in the presynaptic
cleft until an action potential arrives
...
There they can cause
another action potential to be produced
...
Nicotine has a similar
molecular shape to acetylcholine in effect in the postsynaptic membrane so that
it transmits and action potential
...
The control process that maintains conditions:
water balance, blood glucose concentration, blood pH, carbon dioxide
concentration and body temperature
...
, for
example the normal body temperature for humans is thirty-‐seven degrees
Celsius
...
The endocrine system consists of ductless endocrine glands, which releases
hormones
...
Monitoring levels and control by Negative Feedback
Feedback systems work by monitoring the level of a substance or a product and
feeding this level back to affect the rate of production or use of the substance
...
Negative feedback also controls levels of blood glucose, if a large amount of
glucose is absorbed from the small intestine, responses are initiated to bring the
levels back to normal
...
The body temperature for humans is 36
...
The hypothalamus
responds to nerve impulses from receptors in the skin and also changes in the
body's core temperature
...
Nerve messages are carried from the hypothalamus to organs that bring about
the warming or cooling of the body
...
It is expressed as milli-‐moles per decimetres cubed
...
Levels are higher after meals as glucose is absorbed into the blood from the
intestine and usually the lowest in the morning because food has not been
consumed overnight
...
If the
level is too high or too low, alpha and beta cells in the pancreas are known as
islets of langer produce hormones that turn on to correct it
...
A diabetic person will experience wide fluctuations in the
blood glucose above and below the normal limits
...
Without insulin, glucose is not taken up by body cells, so blood levels
remain high, this is a condition known as hyperglycaemia
...
About ten per
cent of diabetics have type 1, which must be controlled by insulin injections
...
Again the result is high glucose
levels
...
It is often associated with obesity, age, lack of exercise and genetic factors
...
Diabetics must monitor their blood glucose level carefully so that
they control it because the body's internal control mechanism is not working
properly
...
Human male and
female reproductive systems produce gametes (the sperm cell and the egg cell)
that must fuse together to begin a new life
...
The ovaries and testes also use hormones that regulate sexual development and
reproduction
...
Each testicle
produces all sperm cells and the hormone testosterone
...
These glands produce the
seminal fluid in which the sperm cells travel
...
This fluid
travels down the penis in the urethra and is transferred to the vagina
...
The sperm production is a continuous process, which begins at
puberty and continues throughout a man's life
...
(2) At puberty, levels of testosterone rise and cause the development of male
sexual characteristics e
...
growth of muscle, deepening of voice, growth of body
hair, etc
...
The Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, which produces the female
gametes, the oviducts, where fertilisation usually takes place, and the uterus,
where the baby grows and develops
...
The production of female gametes is a cyclical process, which lasts
approximately 28 days
...
The cycle involves hormones that are release
by the ovaries and the pituitary gland
...
These hormones
stimulate the development of female characteristics at puberty and also
influence the changes in the uterus lining during the menstrual cycle and
pregnancy
...
FSH stimulates the development of immature follicles in the ovary, one of which
will come to contain a mature egg cell
...
The sequence of events begins
at the start of menstruation, which is often called a period
...
This indicates that fertilisation has
not occurred during the previous month
...
The follicle that secretes oestrogen enhances
the follicles response to FSH
...
As the follicle grows, oestrogen levels rise to a peak at
around day 12
...
As LH levels reach their highest point, ovulation takes place, ovulation usually
occurs at around day 14 of the cycle
...
Levels of oestrogen begin to rise and as
a result FSH and LH levels fall
...
It also inhibits the production FSH and LH
...
The fall in progesterone stimulates
the breakdown of the uterus lining
...
Invitro Fertilisation (IVF)
IVF is a technique used to help couples that have been unable to conceive
naturally
...
Females may fail to ovulate, or have blocked or damaged oviducts, or produce
antibodies in cervical mucus that destroy sperm
...
If so, the woman is injected with FSH for about 10 days
...
Just before the egg cells are released from the follicles, they are connected using
a laparoscope
...
Fertilised egg cells are incubated for about three days until they have divided to
form a ball of cells
...
Either two or three will be selected and placed into the
woman's uterus for implantation
...
Any remaining embryos can be frozen and stored for use later
...
Arguments against IVF
Unused embryos produced by IVF are
frozen for a limited period and then
destroyed
...
Multiple births also result from IVF and
this increases the risk to mothers and
babies
...
Embryos used in IVF treatment can be
screened to ensure they are healthy
and do not have certain genetic
conditions that would be inherited
...
Infertility is a natural phenomenon,
whereas IVF is not, and some religions
reject to it on this basis
...
Title: Human Health and Physiology
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.