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Title: Human Health and Physiology
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.

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Human  health  and  Physiology    

 
Physiology  is  the  study  of  organs  and  organs  systems  of  the  body  and  how  they  
interact  to  keep  us  alive
...
 
 

Digestion  

 
The  food  we  take  in  consists  of  large,  complex  molecules,  which  are  not  suitable  
to  be  used  as  they  are
...
   
 
Digestion  is  the  biochemical  breakdown  of  large  insoluble  food  molecules  into  
small  soluble  molecules
...
 Molecules  produce  by  digestion  pass  
through  the  wall  of  the  small  intestine  by  diffusion,  facilitated  diffusion  or  active  
transport
...
   
 
Three  main  types  of  food  molecules  that  must  be  digested  are  carbohydrates,  
proteins  and  lipids
...
 
 
In  the  human  digestion  system,  different  enzymes  are  released  in  different  
sections  of  the  digestion  system  and  each  one  is  specific  for  one  food  type
...
 
 
All  the  enzymes  help  to  catalyses  hydrolysis  reactions  and  work  most  efficiently  
at  37°C
...
 Associated  with  it  are  a  number  of  glands  that  secrete  enzymes  
and  other  digestive  juices
...
 
 
 

Mouth,  Esophagus  and  Stomach  
 
In  the  mouth,  food  is  broken  into  small  pieces  by  jaws  and  teeth  and  mixed  with  
saliva  containing  salivary  amylase,  which  begins  the  digestion  of  any  starch  the  
food  contains
...
 The  stomach  is  a  muscular  sack  that  
holds  the  food  for  up  to  four  hours,  while  digestion  proceeds  inside  it
...
 
 
The  digestion  of  proteins  begins  here,  catalysed  by  the  enzyme  pepsin,  which  is  
secreted  in  gastric  juice  used  by  millions  of  gastric  glands  in  the  stomach  wall
...
 Hydrochloric  acid  
activates  the  pepsin  and  produces  a  pH  of  1
...
 This  pH  is  the  
optimum  for  protein  digestion  and  also  kills  many  of  the  bacteria  present  in  the  
food  we  eat
...
 
 
Food  is  transformed  in  the  stomach  to  a  semi-­‐liquid  form  and  is  then  ready  to  
move  on  to  the  next  stage  of  digetsion  on  to  the  small  intestine
...
 Digestion  is  
completed  in  the  first  section  of  the  small  intestine
...
 Bile  is  added  from  
the  liver  and  the  gall  bladder,  and  the  pancreas  secretes  pancreatic  juice  
containing  trypsin  (protease),  lipase,  amylase  and  carbonate  ions
...
 The  inner  surface  of  the  small  intestine  is  greatly  folded  to  form  
thousands  of  tiny  villi
...
 Villi  greatly  increase  the  surface  area  of  
the  small  intestine  and  improve  its  efficiency  as  an  absorptive  surface
...
 Amino  acids  and  glucose  then  enter  
the  capillaries  and  are  carried  away  in  the  bloodstream
...
 
 
After  digested  has  been  absorbed  it  is  assimilated  into  the  body  and  enter  cells  to  
become  part  of  the  body  tissues  or  as  reserves
...
 It  forms  part  of  the  reserve  
of  amino  acids  used  to  build  proteins,  and  fatty  acids  and  glycerol  enters  the  
bloodstream  from  lymph  vessels  near  the  heart  to  be  used  as  an  energy  source  
or  to  build  larger  molecules
...
 Any  remaining  undigested  material  
passes  into  the  large  intestine,  which  also  contains  mucus,  dead  cells  from  the  
intestine  lining  and  large  numbers  of  naturally  occurring  bacteria
...
   
 
The  main  role  of  the  large  intestine  is  reabsorbing  water  and  mineral  ions  such  
as  sodium  chloride
...
 What  remains  of  the  original  food  is  now  referred  to  as  faeces  and  it  is  
egested  from  the  body  via  the  anus
...
 The  heart,  the  blood  and  blood  vessels  make  up  the  most  efficient  
transport  system  that  reaches  all  cells  bringing  the  substances  they  need  and  
taking  away  their  waste
...
   

 
In  the  human  circulatory  system,  blood  is  kept  on  the  move  by  the  powerful  
action  of  the  strong  heart  muscle
...
5  x  109  times  in  a  lifetime  (number  of  times  the  heart  
beats),  sending  a  total  of  more  than  1
...
   
 
A  human  heart  is  about  the  size  of  a  clenched  fist,  it  is  a  double  pump  with  two  
separate  sides
...
 The  left  hand  side  
receives  oxygenated  blood  from  the  lungs  and  pumps  blood  to  the  cells  all  over  
the  body  where  the  oxygen  is  unloaded
...
   
 
The  heart  has  four  chambers,  two  smaller  atria  at  the  top,  and  two  larger  
ventricles  below
...
 Atria  have  thin  walls  as  the  blood  received  has  relatively  low  
pressure
...
 Both  ventricles  hold  the  same  volume  of  blood  but  the  left  
ventricle  wall  is  thicker  than  the  right  as  it  must  generate  enough  pressure  to  
pump  blood  all  around  the  body
...
 
 
Atria  are  separated  form  ventricles  by  atrioventicular  valves,  which  prevents  the  
blood  from  flowing  backwards  into  the  atria
...
   
 
The  heart  muscles  work  continuously,  beating  about  seventy  five  times  a  minute  
when  a  person  is  resting  and  so  it  has  a  large  demand  for  oxygen
...
 
 
 

The  Cardiac  Cycle  
 

The  cardiac  cycle  is  a  sequence  of  events  that  takes  place  during  one  heartbeat
...
 Valves  in  
the  heart  and  arteries  stop  blood  from  flowing  backwards
...
 The  cardiac  muscle  is  unique  because  it  contracts  and  
relaxes  without  stimulus  from  the  nervous  system
...
 
Natural  myogenic  contractions  are  initiated  at  an  inbuilt  pacemaker,  which  
keeps  the  cardiac  muscle  working  in  a  coordinated  controlled  sequence
...
 The  rate  set  by  the  SAN  is  also  
influenced  by  stimulation  of  the  nervous  system  and  by  hormones
...
 A  second  structure,  the  atrioventicular  node  (AVN)  at  the  base  of  the  
atrium  is  also  stimulated
...
 Impulses  radiate  
up  through  the  ventricles,  which  contract  simultaneously,  about  0
...
 
 
The  natural  rhythm  of  the  pacemaker  is  modulated  by  the  nervous  system  so  
that  the  heart  rate  is  adjusted  to  our  activity  levels
...
 
 
Changes  to  our  heart  rate  are  not  up  to  our  conscious  control  but  result  from  the  
impulses  sent  from  a  control  centre  in  the  brain  called  the  medulla
...
 Impulses  sent  along  the  parasympathetic  nerve  
cause  the  heart  rate  to  slow  down
...
 
 
Emotions  such  as  stress,  as  well  as  increases  in  activity  level  can  cause  increases  
in  heart  rate
...
   
 
Summary  of  the  cardiac  cycle:  
 
• The  muscles  of  the  atrium  wall  contract  pushing  blood  through  the  
atrioventicular  valves  into  the  ventricles
...
 This  is  called  atrial  systole
...
 When  the  ventricles  are  full,  
the  ventricular  muscles  contract  generating  the  pressure  that  drives  
blood  past  the  semilunar  valves  to  the  aorta  (left  ventricle)  or  to  the  
pulmonary  artery  (right  ventricle)
...
 A  pulse  is  
produced  that  can  be  felt  in  the  arteries  and  other  parts  of  the  body
...
 The  
semilunar  valves  are  closed  by  the  backpressure  of  blood  in  the  arteries
...
 
• Blood  flows  into  the  atria  from  the  veins,  opens  the  atrioventicular  valves  
and  begins  to  fill  the  ventricles
...
 Blood  from  the  lungs  enters  the  left  atrium  from  
the  pulmonary  artery
...
 
 
 

Blood  and  blood  vessels  
 
Arteries  

Arteries  are  blood  vessels  that  carry  blood  away  from  the  heart
...
 
 
Arteries  have  thick  outer  walls  of  collagen  and  elastic  fibres,  which  withstand  
high  blood  pressure  and  prevent  vessels  becoming  overstretched  or  bursting
...
 
Inside  an  artery,  the  lumen  is  narrow  to  keep  blood  pressure  high
...
 
 

Capillaries  

 
Capillaries  are  the  smallest  vessels,  the  lumen  of  the  capillaries  are  only  about  
ten  micrometres  in  diameter  and  some  are  so  small  that  red  blood  cells  have  to  
fold  up  in  order  to  pass  along  the  capillaries
...
 Blood  flow  here  is  very  slow,  at  les  than  one  
millimetre  per  second  but  capillary  walls  are  only  one  millimetre  thick  so  the  
distance  of  diffusion  of  materials  in  and  out  of  them  is  as  small  as  possible
...
 
 

Veins  

 
Veins  carry  blood  back  to  the  heart  through  the  tissues
...
   
 
Blood  inside  a  vein  does  not  pulse  along  the  lumen  and  the  lumen  is  large  to  hold  
slow  moving  flow
...
   
 
Many  veins  contain  valves  to  prevent  blood  flowing  backwards
...
 
 

 
 

Composition  of  Blood  

 
Blood  plasma  is  a  pale  yellow  liquid  that  makes  up  fifty  per  cent  of  our  blood  
volume
...
 
Leucocytes  -­‐  defend  the  body  against  pathogens
...
 
 

Functions  of  Blood  

 
Blood  has  two  important  roles,  (1)  it  is  a  vital  part  of  the  bodies  transport  system  
carrying  dissolved  materials  to  all  cells  and  (2)  it  helps  to  fight  infectious  disease
...
 Most  pathogens  are  bacteria  and  viruses  but  protozoa,  parasitic  worms  
and  fungi  can  also  be  pathogens
...
 All  viruses  have  
the  potential  to  be  pathogenic
...
 
 

Antibiotics  

 
Most  bacterial  infections  can  be  treated  with  antibiotics
...
   
 
Next  the  discovery  of  penicillin  in  1928,  many  antibiotics  have  been  isolated  and  
about  fifty  are  now  manufactured  for  medical  use
...
 Some  antibiotics  block  the  
protein  synthesis  mechanism  in  bacteria  while  not  affecting  the  process  in  
human  cells
...
 Viruses  are  not  living  and  have  no  
metabolic  pathways  of  their  own,  since  they  use  their  human  host's  metabolism  
to  build  new  viruses,  antibiotics  have  no  affects  against  viral  infections
...
 This  is  due  to  our  effective  immune  system,  which  prevents  pathogens  from  
entering  the  body  and  also  deal  with  any  that  enter
...
 Unbroken  skin  is  a  tough  
barrier  to  any  potential  invaders
...
   
 
Openings  in  the  skin,  such  as  the  eyes  and  nose  can  provide  entry  routes  for  the  
pathogens,  but  these  are  protected  by  various  secretion
...
 If  
pathogens  are  swallowed  in  food  or  bacteria,  the  acidic  environment  of  the  
stomach  helps  to  kill  them
...
 These  specialised  white  
blood  cells  circulate  in  the  blood  system,  and  because  they  are  easily  able  to  
change  their  shape,  can  also  squeeze  in  and  out  of  the  capillaries
...
 
 

Antibodies  and  Antigens  

 
Antigens  (antibody  generating  substances)  are  proteins  found  embedded  in  the  
plasma  membranes  or  cell  walls  of  bacteria,  or  in  the  protein  code  of  a  virus
...
 
 

Antibodies  are  protein  molecules  that  are  produced  in  response  to  any  antigen  
that  enters  the  body
...
 For  example,  the  antibodies  produced  in  response  to  
infection  by  influence  of  a  virus  are  quite  different  from  those  produced  in  
response  to  a  tuberculosis  bacteria
...
 
 
Each  antibody  molecule  has  a  basic  y-­‐shape,  but  at  the  tops  of  the  y,  specific  
binding  sites  give  every  antibody  its  unique  property
...
 Once  an  antibody  has  bound  to  an  antigen,  it  can  destroy  it  in  one  of  a  
number  of  ways
...
 Others  cause  cell  walls  to  rupture,  deactivate  toxins  or  act  as  
recognition  signals  for  phagocytes,  giving  a  clear  indication  that  action  is  needed
...
 HIV  affects  only  the  helper  T  cells,  a  type  of  lymphocyte  that  is  important  
in  maintaining  communication  between  cells  of  the  immune  system
...
 Helper  T  cells  
instruct  other  lymphocytes  to  clone  and  generate  antibodies  and  without  them,  
an  infected  person  can  no  longer  fight  off  pathogens
...
 
 

Cause,  Transmission  and  Consequences  of  AIDS  

 
AIDS  is  the  end  stage  of  a  HIV  infection;  it  is  caused  by  severe  failure  of  the  
immune  system,  as  the  HIV  virus  selectively  infects  helper  T  cells
...
 Symptoms  of  AIDS  develop  as  the  
number  of  active  helper  T  cells  decreases
...
 HIV  is  transmitted  in  
blood,  vaginal  secretions,  semen,  and  breast  milk  and  sometimes  across  the  
placenta
...
   
 
AIDS  used  to  be  though  of  as  a  disease  that  affected  only  drug  abusers  but  now  
may  spread  because  of  an  irresponsible  lifestyle
...
 Even  if  all  the  viruses  of  the  body  
could  be  removed,  the  T  cells  would  continue  to  make  new  viruses
...
 
 

 
Gas  Exchange  

 
All  living  cells  need  energy  for  their  activities
...
 Respiration  is  a  chemical  reaction  that  occurs  in  the  mitochondria  
and  the  cytoplasm,  and  releases  energy  as  ATP
...
 Oxygen  is  taken  in  from  the  air  and  carbon  dioxide  is  
returned  in  a  passive  process  known  as  gas  exchange
...
 Gases  
are  also  exchanged  in  the  tissues,  where  oxygen  diffuses  into  respiring  cells  and  
is  exchanged  for  carbon  dioxide
...
 Air  inside  the  
alveoli  contains  a  higher  concentration  of  oxygen  than  the  blood
...
 Blood  contains  a  higher  level  of  carbon  dioxide  than  inhaled  air,  
so  carbon  dioxide  diffuses  into  the  alveoli
...
 
As  oxygen  diffuses  out  of  the  alveoli,  the  level  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs  gradually  
falls,  this  process  is  known  as  ventilation
...
 The  inside  of  the  rib  cage  is  lined  with  membranes  to  
lubricate  the  lungs,  making  them  slippery,  and  reducing  friction  during  
breathing
...
 Bronchi  divide  into  smaller  and  
smaller  tubes  called  bronchioles,  which  end  in  tiny  air  sacs  known  as  alveoli  
(singular  -­‐  alveolus)
...
   
 
 

Mechanism  for  Ventilation  
 
Lungs  have  no  muscles,  and  cannot  move  by  themselves
...
 
 

There  are  two  mechanisms  by  which  breathing  takes  place
...
 These  movements  lower  the  
volume  of  the  chest  cavity  and  lower  the  pressure  on  the  lungs  to  below  that  of  
the  air  outside
...
 
 
Gentile  exhalation  occurs  as  the  intercostal  muscles  and  the  diaphragm  relax,  
reducing  the  volume  of  the  chest  cavity
...
 
 
Long  or  forced  exhalation  involves  the  internal  intercostal  muscles,  which  
contract  to  lower  the  ribs
...
 Pressure  inside  the  chest  cavity  increases  and  air  
is  forced  out  of  the  lungs
...
 Formed  in  clusters  at  the  end  of  the  
smallest  bronchioles,  more  than  three  hundred  million  alveoli  in  each  lung  
together  provide  a  surface  area  of  about  seventy-­‐five  metres  squared
...
 The  capillaries  that  rap  around  them  also  have  thin  walls  of  epithelial  cells
...
 Oxygen  diffuses  through  the  alveolus  and  capillary  
into  the  blood,  and  carbon  dioxide  diffuses  in  the  opposite  direction
...
 
 
 
Feature  of  Alveoli  
Importance  
Many  small  spherical  alveoli  
Provide  a  large  area  for  gas  exchange  
Thin  walls  of  flattened  single  cells  
Short  diffusion  distance  (diffusion  
path)  
Rich  blood  supply  from  capillaries    
Maintains  concentration  gradient  and  
carries  absorbed  gases  away  rapidly  
 
 
 

Nerves,  Homeostasis  and  Hormones  
 
The  human  nervous  system  consists  neurons  or  nerve  cells,  which  transmit  
information  in  the  form  of  nerve  impulses
...
 The  CNS  receives  
information  from  sensory  receptors  all  over  the  body
...
   
 
The  peripheral  nerves  are  a  network  of  neurons  that  carry  information  to  and  
from  the  CNS
...
   
 
Neurons  are  found  in  the  nervous  system,  sensory  and  motor  neurons  transmit  
information  to  and  from  the  CNS,  while  relay  neurons  within  the  CNS  form  
connections  within  between  them
...
 One  long  axon  
then  carries  impulses  away
...
 The  axon  is  covered  by  the  myelin  sheath  formed  by  
Schwann  cells,  which  rap  themselves  around  it
...
 Along  the  length  of  the  axon,  junctions  where  two  Schwann  cells  
meet  can  be  seen
...
   
 
 

Transmission  of  Impulses  

 
Neurons  transmit  information  in  the  form  of  impulses,  which  are  short-­‐lived  
changes  in  electrical  potential  across  the  membrane  of  a  neuron
...
 An  impulse  occurs  as  these  ions  
move  in  and  out  through  the  plasma  membrane
...
 The  resting  potential  is  the  potential  difference  across  the  plasma  
membrane  when  it  is  not  being  stimulated
...
 The  inside  of  the  axon  is  negatively  charged  with  respect  to  the  
outside
...
 For  a  millisecond,  the  membrane  is  said  to  be  depolarised
...
 An  impulse  that  travels  in  this  way  is  known  
as  the  action  potential
...
 The  neuron  is  now  said  to  be  
depolarised
...
 At  this  point  the  
sodium  channels  close
...
 To  re-­‐establish  the  resting  
potential,  a  process  known  as  repolarisation  occurs
...
 At  this  point,  both  sodium  and  potassium  ions  begin  
to  close
...
   
 
An  action  potential  in  one  part  of  an  axon  causes  the  depolarisation  of  maybe  a  
distant  section  of  the  axon
...
 The  action  potential  travels  along  the  neuron  
like  a  Mexican  wave
...
 The  recovery  phase  is  
known  as  the  refractory  period
...
 
 
 The  action  potential  must  be  transmitted  across  this  gap  for  the  impulse  to  pass  
on  its  way
...
 Neurotransmitters  are  held  in  vesicles  in  the  presynaptic  
cleft  until  an  action  potential  arrives
...
 There  they  can  cause  
another  action  potential  to  be  produced
...
 Nicotine  has  a  similar  
molecular  shape  to  acetylcholine  in  effect  in  the  postsynaptic  membrane  so  that  
it  transmits  and  action  potential
...
   
 
The  control  process  that  maintains  conditions:  
 
water  balance,  blood  glucose  concentration,  blood  pH,  carbon  dioxide  
concentration  and  body  temperature
...
,  for  
example  the  normal  body  temperature  for  humans  is  thirty-­‐seven  degrees  
Celsius
...
 
The  endocrine  system  consists  of  ductless  endocrine  glands,  which  releases  
hormones
...
 
 
 

Monitoring  levels  and  control  by  Negative  Feedback  

 
Feedback  systems  work  by  monitoring  the  level  of  a  substance  or  a  product  and  
feeding  this  level  back  to  affect  the  rate  of  production  or  use  of  the  substance
...
 
 
Negative  feedback  also  controls  levels  of  blood  glucose,  if  a  large  amount  of  
glucose  is  absorbed  from  the  small  intestine,  responses  are  initiated  to  bring  the  
levels  back  to  normal
...
 
The  body  temperature  for  humans  is  36
...
 The  hypothalamus  
responds  to  nerve  impulses  from  receptors  in  the  skin  and  also  changes  in  the  
body's  core  temperature
...
 
Nerve  messages  are  carried  from  the  hypothalamus  to  organs  that  bring  about  
the  warming  or  cooling  of  the  body
...
 It  is  expressed  as  milli-­‐moles  per  decimetres  cubed
...
   
 
Levels  are  higher  after  meals  as  glucose  is  absorbed  into  the  blood  from  the  
intestine  and  usually  the  lowest  in  the  morning  because  food  has  not  been  
consumed  overnight
...
 If  the  
level  is  too  high  or  too  low,  alpha  and  beta  cells  in  the  pancreas  are  known  as  
islets  of  langer  produce  hormones  that  turn  on  to  correct  it
...
 A  diabetic  person  will  experience  wide  fluctuations  in  the  
blood  glucose  above  and  below  the  normal  limits
...
 Without  insulin,  glucose  is  not  taken  up  by  body  cells,  so  blood  levels  
remain  high,  this  is  a  condition  known  as  hyperglycaemia
...
 About  ten  per  
cent  of  diabetics  have  type  1,  which  must  be  controlled  by  insulin  injections
...
 Again  the  result  is  high  glucose  
levels
...
 It  is  often  associated  with  obesity,  age,  lack  of  exercise  and  genetic  factors
...
 Diabetics  must  monitor  their  blood  glucose  level  carefully  so  that  
they  control  it  because  the  body's  internal  control  mechanism  is  not  working  
properly
...
 Human  male  and  
female  reproductive  systems  produce  gametes  (the  sperm  cell  and  the  egg  cell)  
that  must  fuse  together  to  begin  a  new  life
...
 
 
The  ovaries  and  testes  also  use  hormones  that  regulate  sexual  development  and  
reproduction
...
 Each  testicle  
produces  all  sperm  cells  and  the  hormone  testosterone
...
 These  glands  produce  the  
seminal  fluid  in  which  the  sperm  cells  travel
...
 This  fluid  
travels  down  the  penis  in  the  urethra  and  is  transferred  to  the  vagina
...
 The  sperm  production  is  a  continuous  process,  which  begins  at  
puberty  and  continues  throughout  a  man's  life
...
 
 
(2)  At  puberty,  levels  of  testosterone  rise  and  cause  the  development  of  male  
sexual  characteristics  e
...
 growth  of  muscle,  deepening  of  voice,  growth  of  body  
hair,  etc
...
   
 
 

The  Female  Reproductive  System    

 
The  female  reproductive  system  includes  the  ovaries,  which  produces  the  female  
gametes,  the  oviducts,  where  fertilisation  usually  takes  place,  and  the  uterus,  
where  the  baby  grows  and  develops
...
 
 
The  production  of  female  gametes  is  a  cyclical  process,  which  lasts  
approximately  28  days
...
 The  cycle  involves  hormones  that  are  release  
by  the  ovaries  and  the  pituitary  gland
...
 These  hormones  
stimulate  the  development  of  female  characteristics  at  puberty  and  also  
influence  the  changes  in  the  uterus  lining  during  the  menstrual  cycle  and  
pregnancy
...
 
 
FSH  stimulates  the  development  of  immature  follicles  in  the  ovary,  one  of  which  
will  come  to  contain  a  mature  egg  cell
...
 The  sequence  of  events  begins  
at  the  start  of  menstruation,  which  is  often  called  a  period
...
 This  indicates  that  fertilisation  has  
not  occurred  during  the  previous  month
...
 The  follicle  that  secretes  oestrogen  enhances  
the  follicles  response  to  FSH
...
 As  the  follicle  grows,  oestrogen  levels  rise  to  a  peak  at  
around  day  12
...
 
 
As  LH  levels  reach  their  highest  point,  ovulation  takes  place,  ovulation  usually  
occurs  at  around  day  14  of  the  cycle
...
 Levels  of  oestrogen  begin  to  rise  and  as  
a  result  FSH  and  LH  levels  fall
...
 It  also  inhibits  the  production  FSH  and  LH
...
 The  fall  in  progesterone  stimulates  
the  breakdown  of  the  uterus  lining
...
 
 
 

Invitro  Fertilisation  (IVF)  

 
IVF  is  a  technique  used  to  help  couples  that  have  been  unable  to  conceive  
naturally
...
 
Females  may  fail  to  ovulate,  or  have  blocked  or  damaged  oviducts,  or  produce  
antibodies  in  cervical  mucus  that  destroy  sperm
...
 
If  so,  the  woman  is  injected  with  FSH  for  about  10  days
...
 
 
Just  before  the  egg  cells  are  released  from  the  follicles,  they  are  connected  using  
a  laparoscope
...
   
 
Fertilised  egg  cells  are  incubated  for  about  three  days  until  they  have  divided  to  
form  a  ball  of  cells
...
 Either  two  or  three  will  be  selected  and  placed  into  the  
woman's  uterus  for  implantation
...
 Any  remaining  embryos  can  be  frozen  and  stored  for  use  later
...
 

Arguments  against  IVF  
Unused  embryos  produced  by  IVF  are  
frozen  for  a  limited  period  and  then  
destroyed
...
 
Multiple  births  also  result  from  IVF  and  
this  increases  the  risk  to  mothers  and  
babies
...
 
Embryos  used  in  IVF  treatment  can  be  
screened  to  ensure  they  are  healthy  
and  do  not  have  certain  genetic  
conditions  that  would  be  inherited
...
 
 

Infertility  is  a  natural  phenomenon,  
whereas  IVF  is  not,  and  some  religions  
reject  to  it  on  this  basis
...
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


Title: Human Health and Physiology
Description: Notes on digestion, the small intestine, the large intestine, the transport system, the cardiac cycle, blood and blood vessels, and defence against infectious disease. Suitable for Higher, A-level and IB students.