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Biology Review
Cell Parts and Functions
Cell: the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic
and consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane
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Cell Membrane:
- Protect cells from surrounding
- Made of phospholipid Bilayer of embedded proteins
- Is selectively permeable
- Essentially regulates movement in and out of the cell
Cell Plate:
- A plate that develops at the midpoint between the two groups of chromosomes in
a dividing plant cell and involves forming the wall between the 2 daughter cells
- At the plane of equator that separates sets of chromosomes during cytokinesis
Cell Wall:
- Present in bacteria, fungi, algae, and plant cells
- Completely permeable
- Made of Cellulose which is a complex carbohydrate
- What defines if an organism can move or not
...

- The importance of cell division is that all cells come from pre-existing cells
according to cell theory
- Cell Division is needed for
- Healing and Tissue Repair
- Growth of Living Organisms (100 Trillion cells in the human body
and they all started as 1)
- Reproduction of Organisms
Interphase: Essentially the cell grows and makes copy of organelles and DNA
- G1 Phase: The first gap phase where the cell grows physically larger, copies
organelles, and makes molecular building blocks it will need for later
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Duplicates
microtubule organizing structure called Centrosomes
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- G2 Phase: The cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles and recognizes
its content in preparation for Mitosis
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Anaphase:
- Centrioles are now at opposite poles of the cell
- Sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell

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Telophase:
- Chromatid becomes thinner and uncoils to turn back into chromatin
- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus appear again
- Cell membrane starts to move inwards (cleavage forms)

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DNA:

Spindle fibers disappear
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Is a self replicating material
found in nearly all living organisms
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Chromatin: Loose, uncoiled DNA
Chromosomes: Tightly coiled DNA and different species have different amounts of
Chromosomes
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Replication: Before Mitosis, the nucleus creates a copy of its chromatin and that's
called replication
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The nucleus
makes an identical copy of its own genetic information so there are 2 complete sets of
DNA
...
These
are nucleotide bases bonded together with weak hydrogen bonds
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What holds the nucleotide bases together essentially
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This creates 2 new strands of DNA with combinations of A-T and C-G
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Stage Clips: Holds the slide in place
Diaphragm: Is a rotating dish under the stage
...
Varies in magnification and
provides majority of the image enhancement
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Revolving Nosepiece: Can be rotated to easily change the magnification
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Usually 10x power
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Fine Adjustment Knob: Inside coarse adjustment and allows the specimen to
have a sharp focus under low power and is used for all focusing with high power
lenses
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Letter E Lab
The slide is moved

The images moves

To the left

To the right

To the right

To the left

Towards the observer

Away from the observer

Away from the observer

Towards the observer

Observation:
● This means that the opposite action occur
● Letters also are inverted
● As magnification was increased, the size of field decreases as it results in a
bigger view of the letter e
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Write name in the top right corner
2
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Always use pencil
4
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All labels known should be on the right side of the diagram
6
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Draw only what you observe

Cancer:
-

Cancer is abnormal cell division and growth
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Tumour:
- A mass of cells that are formed from uncontrolled cell division
- Benign Tumour:
- The cells are NOT cancerous
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Malignant Tumour:
- The cells ARE cancerous
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Metastasis: The process of cancer cells breaking away from the tumour and
forming a tumour somewhere else in the body
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Causes of Cancers:
Mutations:
- Random changes in DNA
- Can cause cells to divide out of control
- Can be caused by carcinogens
Carcinogens:
- Environmental factors that cause cancer
- Tobacco smoke, radiation, viruses, and chemicals in plastic (BPA)
Hereditary:
- DNA passed to the next generation may contain information that leads to cancer
- Some breast cancers and colon cancers
Cancer Screening:
Checking for cancer even if you do not have symptoms is good because if you find
cancer earlier the better the chance you have of surviving
...
In
agriculture, a form of genetic testing known as progeny testing can be used to
evaluate the quality of breeding stock
Self Exams:
- To check for some forms of testicular and breast cancer
Pap Tests:
- To detect cervical cancer
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PSA Tests:
- Blood test to check for prostate cancer
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Is a protein
produced by both cancerous and non cancerous tissue in the prostate
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Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems
Specialized Cells: Cells that are similar in size and shape
Tissue: Group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function

Organs: Groups of Tissues that join together to do a specific job
Organ Systems: A group of 2 or more organs that work together as a biological system
to perform one or more functions
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Muscle tissue is made up of cells that can
expand and become smaller
...
Consist of
bundles of muscle fibers that contain proteins
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Connective tissue also
helps to protect the body
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Immune response as they hunt
and destroy viruses, bacteria, and
fungi

Sperm Cell

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Carry DNA from the male parent to
join the egg of the female parent

Fat Cell

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Have a large vacuole which stores
fat molecules

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This is how cells store chemical
energy

Nerve Cell

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Long and thin with many branches
Conduct electrical impulses

Photophores

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Cells that can emit light
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Specialized Cells in Plants
Type of Cell

Function

Xylem Cells

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Transport water and dissolved
minerals throughout the plant

Storage Cells

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Contain special structures that
store starch (a source of energy)
for the plant

Photosynthetic Cells

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Contain many chloroplasts to
collect energy from sunlight

Phloem Cells

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Transport dissolved sugars around
the plant

Epidermal Cells

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Forms boundaries between plant
and environment
Protects against water loss
Regulates gas exchange
Secretes metabolic compounds
Absorbs minerals
And water nutrients especially in
the roots

Guard Cells

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Surround the stoma and help
regulate transpiration by opening
and closing the stomata

Stem Cells:
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Cells that can develop into different types of cells
Controlled by the part of the DNA that is switched on
Embryonic Stem Cells: C
an differentiate into any kind of cell
Tissue Stem Cells: Exist with specialized tissue
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Organ Systems:
Respiratory System:
-

Provides oxygen to the cells
Removes Co2 that is produced in the cells (gas exchanges)

Nasal Cavity:
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A narrow, hollow passage, lined with cilia, and mucus membrane
Keeps your nose moist and traps little dust and dirt from getting into your lungs

Pharynx:
-

Is the throat and has a cone shaped passageway leading from the oral and nasal
cavities in the head to the esophagus and larynx
Filters, warms, and moistens air and conducts it into the lungs

Larynx:
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Is the voice box and sits above the trachea and below the pharynx
Manipulates pitch and volume

Trachea
-

Surrounded by rings of cartilage
Keeps trachea open
Allows air to freely flow
Also known as the windpipe
Integral part of the bodies airway
Vital function of providing respiration

Cartilage Rings:
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Bone rings surrounding the trachea
Keeps the trachea rigid so it does not collapse while breathing

Bronchus or Bronchi
-

Either one of two major branches of the trachea that leads to the lungs
Made of smooth muscles with walls of cartilage to give them stability
Produces mucus
Has cilia and filters out any foreign materials entering the respiratory system
Highway for gas exchange as its a conducting zone for co2 and h2o

Bronchioles:
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Tubes that continue to branch into smaller and smaller tubes within the lungs
To ensure that incoming air is supplied to the alveolus
The branch like structures in the lung
As thin as human hair and they get progressively thinner as it gets longer

Alveoli:
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Most important structures of the entire respiratory system
Tiny, balloon shaped air sacks are at the very end of the respiratory tree or the
bronchioles
They have thin walls (1 cell thick)
Surrounded by capillaries
Site of gas exchange
Specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood
Supply the blood with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from body
Allows co2 to be brought and co2 to be taken away
Allows efficient diffusion of gases

Ribs
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Bone cage with 12 ribs
Supports the walls of the pleural cavity and diaphragm
Protect heart and the lungs (Thoracic cavity)
Volume of cavity able to change depending on respiration

Circulatory System:
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Human circulatory system is made up of blood, the heart, and blood vessels

Functions
-

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transport
Nutrients and waste products transport
Disease Protection and Healing
Hormone Delivery
Body Temperature Regulation
...
It has 4 components:
Red Blood Cells:
- Contain Hemoglobin which is a protein that makes them red
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Mechanical and Chemical
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The
enzymes and proteins in the saliva also break apart food molecules which is
chemical
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5 M long with a large diameter
Intestines are labelled as large and small in relation to the diameter of the tubing
Absorbs remaining water from undigested food
Holds and Compacts waste

Rectum:
-

Muscle that stores waste

Anus:
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Excrete the remaining solid matter known as feces

Accessory Organs part of the Digestive System but not apart of the tract
Liver

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Produces Bile and sends to gallbladder for storage
Bile breaks down fat

Pancreas
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Produces many digestive enzymes that are sent to the small intestine
Also produces insulin which regulates the amount of blood sugar

Gallbladder
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Stores and secretes Bile into the small intestine

Digestive Enzymes: Your body is a chemical factory and it makes enzymes and
proteins
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Some enzymes aid in digesting food
...

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There are many digestive glands inside the digestive tract
They are within the walls of the stomach and the small intestine
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It also contains
Hydrochloric acid and mucus
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It changes liquid milk protein to a cheese like substance
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It
gives protein digesting enzymes time to digest the protein
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Pepsin can digest protein properly only in a proper
environment which is acidic and HCL provides that
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The pancreas and small intestine also produce enzymes and they completely
digest all nutrients
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Liver makes a liquid called
Bile
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Bile breaks fat into tiny pieces
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Bile moves from liver to the gallbladder
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Nervous System
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The network of nerves that can carry messages around the body
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Diabetes
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Affects the digestive system
Insulin regulates amount of blood sugar in your blood
Insulin is made in the pancreas

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Diabetes is caused when the Pancreas produces too low or too high amounts of
insulin
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Symptoms include weakness or dizziness
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Symptoms vary from person to person and even
gender
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Another way is through a blood test
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Can be diagnosed with chest x-ray and also analysis of stomach or lung
secretions for traces of TB bacteria

Osteoporosis:
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Affects musculoskeletal system
Is the loss of bone tissue which makes bones brittle and weak
Symptoms include back pain, easily fractured bones, and stooped posture
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Multiple Sclerosis:
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An immune system malfunction that destroys the myelin sheath around neurons
in the Central nervous system
Symptoms include muscle weakness, slurred speech, and difficulty walking

Brain Injury:

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Affects the nervous system
Caused by sports injuries
Can be determined with a CT scan or MRI

Internal Systems Working Together



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