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Title: Biology 108 Chapter 10, 11, 12
Description: Non-major biology course Christine Yates University of Alabama
Description: Non-major biology course Christine Yates University of Alabama
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Biotechnology
**Viruses**
● Unique viral characteristics
○ They are energyless
○ They contain either DNA or RNA but not both
○ Replication is only by taking control of the host cell’s synthetic machinery
● Viruses: Genes in packages
○ Viruses sit on the fence between life and nonlife
■ They exhibit some, but not all, characteristics of living organisms
○ Must enter and exit the cell
● Plant viruses
○ Viruses that infect plants
■ Can stunt growth and diminish plant yields
■ Can spread throughout the entire plant
● Animal viruses
○ Viruses that infect animals are common causes of disease
○ Aids is one of the most significant health challenges facing the world today
■ Infection by HIV can cause AIDS
● AIDS is:
○ Acquired immunodeficiency Syndrome
○ The disease is caused by HIV infection
○ Treated with the drug AZT
● HIV is a retrovirus
○ A retrovirus is an RNA virus that reproduces by means of a
DNA molecule
○ It copies its RNA to DNA using reverse transcriptase
● Emerging Viruses
○ Many new viruses have emerged in recent years
○ How do new viruses arise?
■ Mutation of existing viruses
■ Spread to a new host species
● How and Why Genes are Regulated
○ 4 of the many different types of human cells
■ They all share the same genome
■ What makes them different??
● In
cellular differentiation
cells become specialized in:
○ Structure
○ Function
● Certain genes are turned on and off in the process of
gene
regulation
○ Patterns of Gene Expression in Differentiated Cells
■ In gene Expression DNA → RNA → Protein
● A gene is turned on and transcribed into RNA
●
●
●
Information flows from genes to proteins, genotype to phenotype
The regulation of gene expression plays a central role in
development from a zygote to multicellular organism
Cloning plants and animals: The genetic potential of cells
○ Differentiated cells
■ All contain a complete genome
■ Have the potential to express all of an organism’s genes
■ Has the ability to develop into a whole new organism
■ Pluripotent
● After 100 cell
...
■ Totipotent
● Any of the cells between 1100→ Can become anything
○ Embryonic Stem cells
○ The somatic cells of a single plant can be used to produce hundreds of
thousands of clones
○ Regeneration: A similar process
■ The regrowth of lost body parts in animals
● Starfish and lizards
○ A brief history of cloning
■ 5000 BC→ A Better breed of corn
● Planting seeds produced by the heartiest plants, the next would be
a good one
■ 1952→ A Tiny tadpole
● First cloned animals
■ 1978→ First test tube baby
● In Vitro fertilization
■ 1987→ From embryo to ewe
● Sheep and cows were cloned from embryonic cells
■ 1997→ Dolly the sheep
● First mammal cloned from a cell of an adult animal
● The procedure that produced Dolly is called
reproductive cloning
○ Remove nucleus from egg cell
○ Add somatic cell from adult donor
○ Grow in culture to produce an early embryo
○ Implant embryo in surrogate mother
○ Clone of Donor is born
● Therapeutic Cloning
○ Remove nucleus from egg cell
○ Add somatic cell from adult donor
○ Grow in culture to produce an early embryo
○ Remove embryonic stem cells from embryo and grow in
culture
○
●
●
●
●
●
Induce stem cells to form specialized cells for therapeutic
use
Practical Applications of Reproductive Cloning
○ Other mammals have since been produced using this technique including:
■ Farm animals
■ Control animals for experiments
■ Rare animals in danger of extinction
What are Stem cells and why use them?
○ Nature’s template for all cells
○ Can become any sort of cell or tissue in the body
○ Scientists hope the cells may one day allow custom made tissue transplants
■ Ex
...
Cure diabetes by replacing dead pancreatic cells
○ A closer look at how stem cells are received
■ Egg is fertilized by sperm in lab dish
■ Fertilized egg develops into an embryo and then into a 100cell blastocyst
● Inner cells are the embryonic stem cells
■ Stem cells are removed from the blastocyst and then cultured in the lab
where they theoretically can multiply indefinitely
■ By adding and removing certain proteins, scientists can coax the cells to
develop into new heart, bone, nerve, or other cells to treat diseases
● growth factors
○ Therapeutic cloning and Stem Cells
■ Therapeutic cloning
● Produces embryonic stem cells
● Can give rise to specific types of differentiated cells
■ The same ES cells can become many different types of cells depending
on how they are grown
Umbilical cord Blood Banking
○ Umbilical cord blood and the placenta
■ Provide another source of stem cells
Adult stem cells
○ Generate replacements for nondividing differentiated cells
○ Are unlike ES cell because they are partway along the road to differentiation
Recombinant DNA Technology
○ rDNA
○ A set of techniques for combining genes from different sources into a single DNA
molecule
■ An organism that carries recombinant DNA is called a Genetically
Modified Organism (GMO)
○ Recombinant DNA technology is applied in the field of biotechnology
■ Biotechnology uses various organisms to perform practical tasks
○ Techniques
■
■
●
●
●
Bacteria are the workhorses of modern biotechnology
To work with genes in the laboratory, biologists often use bacterial
plasmids
■ Why we use
● Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that are separate from
the much larger bacterial chromosome
● Plasmids can easily incorporate foreign DNA
● Plasmids are readily taken up by bacterial cells
● Plasmids then act as DNA carriers that move genes from one cell
to another
○ By transferring the gene for a desired protein product into a bacterium, proteins
can be produced in large quantities
○ In 1982, the world’s first genetically engineered pharmaceutical product was
produced by Eli Lily
■ Humulin, human insulin, was produced by genetically modified bacteria
■ Prior to the development of Humulin, diabetes was treated using insulin
from cows and pigs
● These types of insulin can cause adverse reactions to recipients
■ Humulin was the first recombinant DNA drug approved by the FDA
○ DNA technology is also helping medical researchers develop vaccines
■ A vaccine is a harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen
■ Vaccines are used to prevent infectious diseases
Genetically Modified foods
○ Today, DNA technology is quickly replacing traditional plant breeding programs
■ Today roughly half of the American crops of soybeans and corn are
genetically modified in some ways
● Corn has been genetically modified to resist insect infestation
● Rice has been genetically modified to contain betacarotene,
provide vaccines against cholera, and grow in salt water
○ “golden rice”
○ Our bodies use betacarotene to make vitamin A
Farm Animals and Pharm Animals
○ Transgenic plants are used as commercial products
○ Transgenic whole animals are currently only in the testing phase
Human Gene Therapy
○ Human gene therapy seeks to treat disease by altering the genes of the afflicted
person
■ A recombinant DNA procedure
■ The mutant version of a gene is replaced or supplemented with a properly
functioning one
■ Viruses are used to deliver the gene
○ Treating Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
■ SCID is a fatal inherited disease caused by a single defective gene
●
●
●
●
●
●
● The gene prevents the development of the immune system
■ Since 2000, gene therapy has successfully cured 22 children with inborn
SCID
■ Unfortunately, three of the children developed leukemia, and one of them
died
DNA Profiling and Forensic science
○ DNA technology has rapidly revolutionized the field of forensics
■ Forensics is the scientific analysis of evidence from crime scenes
○ DNA fingerprinting
can be used to determine whether or not two samples of
genetic material are from a particular individual
Murder, Paternity, and Ancient DNA
○ DNA Fingerprinting
■ Has become a standard criminology tool
■ Has been used to identify victims of the WTC attack and hurricane Katrina
■ Can be used in paternity cases
■ Is also used in evolutionary research
● To study ancient pieces of DNA such as that of cheddar man
● A direct ancestor of a local schoolteacher
Gel electrophoresis
○ Can be used to separate the DNA fragments obtained from different sources
○ The DNA fragments are visualized as “bands” on the gel
Safety and Ethical Issues
○ As soon as scientists realized the power of DNA technology they began to worry
about potential dangers such as:
■ The creation of hazardous new pathogens
■ The transfer of cancer genes into infectious bacteria and viruses
○ Strict laboratory safety procedures have been designed to protect researchers
from infection by engineered microbes
The controversy of Genetically Modified foods
○ Advocated of a cautious approach have some concerns:
■ Crops carrying genes from other species might harm the environment
■ GM foods could be hazardous to human health
○ Negotiators from 130 countries agreed on a Biosafety Protocol
■ The protocol requires exporters to identify GMOs present in bulk food
shipments
○ Several US regulatory agencies evaluate biotechnology projects for potential
risks
■ Department of Agriculture
■ FDA
■ EPA
■ National Institutes of Health
Ethical Questions raised by DNA Tech
○
●
Should genetically engineered human growth hormone be used to stimulate
growth in HGHdeficient children
Ethical, legal and social issues
○ Privacy and confidentiality of genetic info
○ Fairness in the use of genetic information
○ Psychological impact, stigma, and discrimination
Title: Biology 108 Chapter 10, 11, 12
Description: Non-major biology course Christine Yates University of Alabama
Description: Non-major biology course Christine Yates University of Alabama